What is research?

• The word research is based on two syllables

- Re is a prefix means to start, anew
- Search is a verb which means to look for,
investigate, examine
- These two make a noun Research describing a
careful, systematic and empirical study in some
field of discipline to establish facts or principles
- It is controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and
verifiable, and empirical

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 Types of research
1. Application; Pure and applied

2. Objectives: descriptive, exploratory,

correlational, and explanatory

3. Mode or process of enquiry: quantitative vs

qualitative

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 The Research Process
Phase Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Main Task Deciding what Planning how, Undertaking
to study where and data collection
(research why to and analysis
questions to conduct the (what type and
answers) research how)
Operational 1 2,3,4,5 6,7,8
steps (eight)

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 The Research Process
(eight steps)
• Phase 1
- Step 1: What to research? Formulating a
research problem
• Phase 2
- Step 2: Conceptualizing a research design
(choice of theory and methodology)
- Step 3: instrument of data collection
(interview, observation, content analysis)
- Step 4: Selecting a sample 4
 The Research Process
• Step 5: Writing a research proposal (putting
everything in place before phase 3 such as
objectives, hypotheses, units of analysis,
methodology, etc.)
• Phase 3
- Step 6: Data collection (through interviews,
observation, FGD, etc.
- Step 7: Data analysis (qualitative or
quantitative or both
- Step 8: Writing a scientific report (e.g. thesis) 5
 Phase 1: What to study? Research
Problem
• Is an intellectual stimulus calling for a response in
the form of scientific enquiry.
• What is the central issue to be addressed in the
study?

Examples:
1) Implementation of the affirmative action policy in Nepal
2) Implementation of e-Government policy in Nepal
3) Scope for participation of women in the local councils in
Bangladesh
4) Trust in public institutions in Nepal: A study of Kathmandu
metropolitian city
5) Institutionalization of performance appraisal system in the
Maldivian Public Service
6) Introduction of NPM in South Asia
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Phase 2: where, what, how and why?
- Units of analysis: the object under study. It could be a)
individuals, b) Groups, organizations, institutions c)
Artifacts (books, photos, newspapers), d) geographical units
(countries, cities), e) social interactions (coordination,
divorce, marriage, hierarchy).

- Fallacy: a) Ecological, b) Individual or Exception fallacy

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 What is Theory?
• A theory is an explanation, a framework that
attempts to explain an experience or a
phenomenon.
• Theories help to sort experiences or events.
• Each theory consists of concepts which
provide categories for sorting, organizing and
storing experiences.

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 Theory
• Theories help to understand social reality
• It influences what is researched and how the
findings are interpreted
• Social research is informed and influenced by
theory

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 Phase 2: Types of studies
1. Descriptive: What is going on or what exists? Public
opinion poll describes people’s opinion about
election, about democracy, environment, education,
health, etc.

2. Exploratory: Is it first of its kind? To find out the

ground reality (e.g. pilot study)

3. Correlational: Relationship between variables can be

correlational, i.e. two variables are synchronized,
e.g. inflation and unemployment are correlated.
Higher inflation leads to high unemployment and
vice versa, but we don’t know what causes the other.
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 f studies
Phase 2: Types of studies
4. Causal: Finding out whether a particular
variable influences the other, like some
education program to increase enrolment,
immunization program to improve health
conditions. This is the most demanding but at the
same time necessary if we want to change,
improve or modify social conditions.

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 Phase 2: What Methodology?
• Quantitative research is empirical research where
the data are in the form of numbers.
-How many? how often? how much? as occurs in quantitative
research.
Concerned with causality
• Qualitative research is empirical research where
the data are in the form of words
-Research which attempts to increase our understanding
of why things are the way they are in our social world
and why people act the ways they do is “qualitative”
research. Interpretation and meaning
formation 12
 Deductive vs. Inductive Approach
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research:
The Deductive Approach The Inductive Approach
Researcher Tests or verifies a theory Analytical Generalizations to theories to
↓ past experiences and literature
↑
Researcher formulates hypothesis or Researcher looks for broad patterns,
research questions from the theory generalizations, or theories from themes
↓ or categories
↑
Researcher defines and operationalizes Researcher analyzes data to form themes
variables derived from the theory or categories
↓ ↑
Researcher measures or observes Researcher asks open-ended questions of
variables to test hypothesis participants or records fieldnotes
↑

Statistical generalization from sample to Researcher gathers information (e.g.

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population interviews, observations
 Two paradigms contrasted on a number of dimensions

Assumptions Question Quantitative Qualitative

1) Ontological What is the nature Reality is objective and Reality is subjective and
Assumption of reality? singular, apart from the multiple as seen by participants
researcher in a study
2) Epistemological What is the Researcher is independent Researcher interacts with that
Assumption relationship of the from that being researched being researched
researcher to the
researched?
3) Axiological What is the role of Value free and unbiased Value laden and biased
assumption values?
4) Rhetorical What is the 1)Formal 1)Informal
Assumption language of 2)Based on set definitions 2)Evolving decisions
research? 3)Impersonal voice 3)Personal voice

5) Methodological What is the process 1)Deductive process 1)Inductive process

assumption of research? 2)Cause and effect
3)Categories designed
beforehand
4)Context free
5)Generalizations leading to
prediction, explanation and
understanding
6)Accurate and reliable
through validity and reliability
2)Mutual simultaneous shaping of
factors
3)Emerging design, categories
identified during research process
4)Context bound
5)Patterns, theories developed for
understanding
6)Accurate and reliable through
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verifications.
 Time in Research

1. Cross-sectional: Takes place at a single point

of time.

2. Longitudinal: studies that take place over

time. Longitudinal study can be repeated
measures with two or three same studies over
time, and time series which is repeated a
number of times (e.g. 20 times).

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 Variable:
- Research problems are conveyed by a set of concepts,
e.g. power, bureaucracy, social status, democracy,
etc. In order to move from the conceptual level to the
empirical level, concepts are converted into variables.
A variable is determined by observation and can take
on two or more values.

• Example 1: The House is Red:

• Example 2: It will rain tomorrow

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 Variable and concept
• Concepts are mental images or perceptions. It
is abstract and non-measurable. It’s in our
thinking pattern, cannot be seen

• Variables are observed or can be measured

such as democracy as a concept can be
measured by the variable voting. Also
education is measured by the number of years
in school
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 Two types of variables

1) Categorical:
a) Nominal, and b) Ordinal

2) Scale:
c) Interval, d) Ratio

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 Characteristics of Variables

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Differences Yes Yes Yes Yes

and
similarities
Ranking No Yes Yes Yes

Distance No No Yes Yes

Relationship No No No Yes

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Which operation can be undertaken in analysis?

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Separate cases with Yes Yes Yes Yes

different values
Rank cases No Yes Yes Yes
according to the size
of values
Addition and No No Yes Yes
subtraction of values
Multiplication and No No No Yes
division of values
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 Hypothesis
• Assumptions or hunch of a reality usually
comprising two variables
Example: smoking may cause cancer,
The higher the education, the higher the income,
The larger the organization, the more the bureaucracy
Smaller the size of an organization, the quicker is its
learning capacity
• Hypothesis provides a study
- With focus and clear objective
- What data to collect and what not to collect
- Which theory and methodology to use 21

- What kind of analysis to conduct

 Hypothesis
• Hypothesis must be clear and
operationalizable
• Related or derived from existing body of
knowledge
• Hypotheses are specific
• Hypotheses are testable with available
methods
• Hypotheses are value – free

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 Positive Relationship

X 23
 Negative Relationship

X 24
 No Relationship: Null Hypothesis

X 25
 Phase 2: Measurement
- Validity is the degree to which a variable corresponds to the concept it is designed
to measure. The best available approximation of the truth of a given proposition.
Are we measuring what we think are measuring? Authenticity, genuine

- Reliability is the degree to which instruments designed to measure a concept yield

consistent and repeatable results. Predictable and accurate instrument. Stability

Three types of validity:

• External validity

• Internal validity,

• Construct validity.

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Relationship Between Reliability and
Validity
• A scale can be reliable, but not valid
• In order for a scale to be valid, it
must also be reliable.
• In other words,
–Reliability is a necessary but
insufficient condition for Validity.
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Reliability and Validity on Target

Old Rifle New Rifle New Rifle Sunglare

Low Reliability High Reliability Reliable but Not
Valid
(Target A) (Target B) (Target C)

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 Phase 2: Sampling
Probability Sampling:
• Random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster (area) random sampling
Non-probability sampling
• Convenience sampling
• Snowball sampling
• Purposive sampling
• Quota sampling
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 Differences in sampling in quantitative and
qualitative research
• In quantitative research sampling involves
- Unbiasness, therefore random sampling
- Representative of population
- Predetermined size,
- Inferences about the group and hence to the
population
- Large size to ensure inclusion of all groups.
This helps to make predictions and explanation
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 Differences in sampling in quantitative and
qualitative research

• In qualitative research sampling involves

- Gaining in depth knowledge about a
situation/individual. From individual with
insights/knowledge about the situation
- No predetermined sample size. When
saturation point is reached, i.e. most relevant
infomation is collected then data collection
stops
- No randomization. Sample is purposefully
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chosen based on convenience
 Phase 3: Data Collection

Primary source:
• Observation/direct participation
• Interviews (structured, open), FGD
• Questionnaire survey (direct, post, telephonic, e-
mail, web-survey)

Secondary source:
d) Such as documents which is also called content
analysis.
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 Types of Survey Questions

• Factual: Mapping respondents’ social background such as his

level of education, age, income, marital status, and so on.

• Subjective: Mapping respondents’ attitudes, opinions,

experience, and motivations.

• Two types of questions:

- Close-ended questions have specific answer alternatives or a
set of answers. For quantitative analysis, we have to have
close-ended questions
- Open ended, there is no such specificity.

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 Classifying Survey Questions
Scaling Techniques
• Comparative Scales
– Involve the direct comparison of two or more
objects

• Noncomparative Scales
– Objects or stimuli are scaled independently of
each other.

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 Classifying Scaling Techniques
Scaling
Techniques

Comparative Noncomparative
Scales Scales

Continuous Itemized
Paired Constant Rating Scales Rating Scales
Comparison Sum
Rank
Order
Likert Graphic
Rating
Semantic Scale
Differential 35
 Paired Comparison Scaling

• Respondent is presented with two objects at a

time
• Then asked to select one object in the pair
according to some criterion
• Data obtained are ordinal in nature
– Arranged or ranked in order of magnitude
• Easy to do if only a few items are compared.
• If number of comparisons is too large,
respondents may become fatigued/confused and
no longer carefully discriminate among them. 36
 Paired Comparison Scaling: Example
For each pair of professors, please indicate the professor from whom
you prefer to take classes with a 1.

Prof Asha Prof Anita Prof Rahim Prof Prakash

Prof Asha - 0 0 0

Prof Anita 1 - 1 0

Prof Rahim 1 0 - 0

Prof Prakash 1 1 1 -

# of times
3 1 2 0
preferred 37
 Rank Order Scaling
• Respondents are presented with several
objects simultaneously

• Then asked to order or rank them

according to some criterion.

• Data obtained are ordinal in nature

– Arranged or ranked in order of magnitude
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 Rank Order Scaling
Please rank the instructors listed below in order of preference. For the
instructor you prefer the most, assign a “1”, assign a “2” to the instructor
you prefer the 2nd most, assign a “3” to the instructor that you prefer 3rd
most, and assign a “4” to the instructor that you prefer the least.

Instructor Ranking

Professor Asha 1

Professor Anita 3

Professor Rahim 2

Professor Prakash 4 39
 Constant Sum Scaling
Listed below are 4 Public Policy and Governance professors, as well as 3 aspects
that students typically find important. For each aspect, please assign a number
that reflects how well you believe each instructor performs on the aspect. Higher
numbers represent higher scores. The total of all the instructors’ scores on an
aspect should equal 100.

Stimulating Command
Professor Punctuality Over the
Lectures Subject
Asha 30 35 25
Anita 30 25 25
Rahim 25 25 25
Prakash 15 15 25
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Sum Total 100 100 100
Classifying Noncomparative Scaling Techniques

Noncomparative
Rating Scales

Continuous Itemized
Rating Scales Rating Scales

Semantic Summated
Graphic
Differential Rating
Rating Scale
Likert
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 Continuous Rating Scale Example

Very Very
X
Poor Good
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

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 Method of Summated Ratings:
The Likert Scale
• Extremely popular means for measuring
attitudes.
• Respondents indicate their own attitudes by
checking how strongly they agree/disagree
with statements.
• Response alternatives:
– 5 “strongly agree”, 4 “agree”, 3 “both”, 2
“disagree”, and 1 “strongly disagree”.
• Generally use a 5 point scale 43
Semantic Differential Scales for Measuring
Citizens’ Attitudes Toward Bureaucracy

Unfriendly __ : __ : __ : __ : __ : __ : __ : Friendly

Inaccessible __ : __ : __ : __ : __ : __ : __ : Accessible

Rigid __ : __ : __ : __ : __ : __ : __ : Flexible

Rule Result

Oriented __ : __ : __ : __ : __ : __ : __ :Oriented
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 Graphic Rating Scale Stressing
Pictorial Visual Communications

3 2 1
Very Very
Good Poor

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 Phase 3: Data analysis
• Type of data analysis can vary on the basis of
research objectives, methodology, and type of
data collected

• In quantitative data analysis, three types of

data analysis- univariate, bivariate, and
multivariate

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 Univariate Analysis
Grade of Numbers % distribution
students
A+ 4 8
A 6 12
A- 12 24
B 16 32
B- 10 20
C 8 16
C- 3 6
D 1 2
F - -
N=50 100%
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 Bivariate Analysis Gender
Grade of Students Female Male
A+ 10 5
A 20 25
A- 30 25
B 20 15
B- 10 5
C 5 10
C- 5 10
D - 5
F -
100% 100%
N=25 N=25
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 Multivariate analysis

Grade of Social science Other background

students Female Male Female Male
A+ 15 15 10 5
A 20 15 40 10
A- 18 10 - 10
B 20 30 30 40
B- 10 10 10 10
C 10 10 10 15
C- 7 5 - 5
D - 5 - 5
F - - - -
100% 100% 100% 100%
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N=15 N=15 N=10 N=10
 Income
Y
300000
…
.
.
. .
.
. .
200000 . .
…
.
.
.
.

100000 . . .

...

X
12 14 18
Y=f(X) Education50
 Writing Thesis
• Very tight logical connection from research
problem to formulating research questions and
objectives, theory and methodolocy choice,
data collection and data analysis
• Analytical and argumentative
• Answering research questions, i.e. to come
back to the beginning

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 Conclusion/Generalization
• Degree to which the conclusions are valid for members of the
population not included in the study sample, i.e. External
validity

• Two types of generalizations:

- Statistical (quantitative): An inference is made about a
population on the basis of empirical data collected about a
sample.
- Analytical (qualitative): Theory verification. A previously
developed theory is used as a template with which to compare
the empirical results of the case study. Generalizable to
theoretical propositions.
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