INSTRUMENTASI &

PENGUKURAN
• Karakteristik Statik
• Karakteristik Dinamik
 Karakteristik Statik
• Kalibrasi statik • Threshold
• Akurasi • Resolusi
• Presisi • Histerisis
• Bias • Offset
• Ketidakpastian • Jangkah
• Sensitivitas • Linearitas
 Karakteristik Dinamik
• Karakteristik alat ukur terhadap sebuah
perubahan dari satu pengukuran ke
pengukuran lain
– Respon kecepatan: kecepatan mengikuti dan
memberikan tanggapan atas besaran ukur yang
ditangkap sebagai sebuah sinyal masukan
– Fidelity: kecepatan menunjukkan nilai pengukuran
baru dengan tepat saat terjadi perubahan nilai
objek ukur
 Karakteristik Dinamik
• Model matematis sistem pengukuran
– Persamaan fungsi alih
– Persamaan ruang-keadaan
• Instrumen orde nol
• Instrumen orde satu
• Instrumen orde dua
 Model Matematis Sistem

Masukan (x) Keluaran (y)

Besaran yang Alat Pengukuran Besaran yang
diukur terukur

• Hubungan masukan dan keluaran alat atau

instrumen pengukuran dinyatakan sebagai
fungsi persamaan diferensial dalam domain
waktu
• Bentuk persamaan differensial umum dalam
domain waktu:
𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑚 𝑚−1 𝑑
𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛_1 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑦 + 𝑎0 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑚 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑚_1 𝑑𝑑𝑡 𝑥 + ⋯ 𝑏1 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−1 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑏0 𝑥
𝑑
untuk D = , maka fungsi alih:
𝑑𝑡

𝑦 𝑏𝑚 𝐷𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚_1 𝐷𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝐷 + 𝑏0
𝐷 =
𝑥 𝑎𝑛 𝐷𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛_1 𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝐷 + 𝑎0
• Instrumen orde nol
𝑦 𝑏0
𝐷 = = 𝑲𝒑
𝑥 𝑎0

• Instrumen orde satu

𝑦 𝑏0 𝑲𝒑
𝐷 = =
𝑥 𝑎1 𝐷 + 𝑎0 𝜏𝐷 + 1
𝒃𝟎
– 𝑲𝒑 = : Penguatan statis (static gain)
𝒂𝟎
𝒂𝟏
– 𝝉𝒑 = : Tetapan waktu (time constant)
𝒂𝟎
• Instrumen orde dua
𝒅 𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
𝐛. 𝐟 𝐭 = 𝒂𝟎 𝒚 + 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅 𝒚
𝐛. 𝐟 𝐭 = 𝒂𝟎 𝒚 + 𝒂𝟏
𝒅𝒕
𝒅 𝒚
𝑲𝒑 . 𝐟 𝐭 = 𝒚 + 𝝉𝒑
𝒅𝒕
𝒃
– 𝑲𝒑 = : Penguatan statis (static gain)
𝒂𝟎
𝒂𝟏
– 𝝉𝒑 = : Tetapan waktu (time
𝒂𝟎
constant)
 Sistem Orde Nol 𝒃
𝑲𝒑 = 𝒂𝟎 : Penguatan statis (static gain)
𝟎

Semua tetapan kecuali a0 dan b0 menjadi nol.

𝑦 𝑏0
a0 y(t )  b0 x(t ) y (t )  Kx(t ) 𝐷 = = 𝑲𝒑
𝑥 𝑎0
Karakteristiknya bergantung dari static sensitivity, Kp dan tetap tidak berubah
(tidak bergantung dari frekuensi masukkan): karakteristik dinamis ideal

Untuk K = static sensitivity =

b0/a0
x
x
m
V  Vr  here, K  Vr / xm
Vr + xm
Untuk 0  x  xm dan Vr tegangan referensi
y=V
x=0 -

Potentiometer linear dipakai sebagai sensor

posisi merupakan sensor orde nol
Sistem Orde Satu
Semua a dan b selain a1, a0 and b0 bernilai nol.
dy (t )
a1  a0  b0 x(t )
dt
dy (t ) y K
  y (t )  Kx(t ) ( D) 
dt x D  1

Untuk K = b0/a0 : static sensitivity

 = a1/a0 : konstanta waktu sistem (dimension of time)
 Sistem Orde Satu: Step Response
Misalkan, untuk t < 0, y = y0 , pada waktu = 0 nilai masukan, x naik tajam
sehingga bernilai A. demikian pula untuk t > 0
0 t  0
x(t )  AU (t )  
A t  0
dy (t )
  y (t )  KAU (t )
dt

Solution lengkap: y(t )  Cet /  KA

2

yocf yopi
Transient Steady state
response response
U(t)

Applying the initial condition, diperoleh C = y0-KA,

sehingga:
t /
0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 y (t )  KA  ( y0  KA)e
Time, t
 Sistem Orde Satu: Step Response

Error pembagian didefinisika sebagai:

y (t )  KA y (t )  y ()
em (t )    e t / 
y0  KA y (0)  y ()
1.0 1.0
Output Signal, (y(t)-y0)/(KA-y0)

y (t )  KA t /
.8 .8 e
y (0)  KA

Error fraction, em
.6 0.632 .6

y (t )  y0
.4  1  e t /  .4
KA  y0 0.368

.2 .2

0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
t/ t/
Non-dimensional step response of first-order instrument
Penentuan Konstanta Waktu

y (t )  KA t
em   e t / ln em  2.3 log em  
y (0)  KA 

1
y (t )  KA
0.368  e t / 
y (0)  KA
Error fraction, em

.1
Slope = -1/

.01

.001
0 1 2 3 4 5
t
Sistem Orde Satu: Ramp Response
Misalkan pada keadaan awal, y dan x = 0, pada waktu = 0, nilai masukan mulai
berubah dengan laju tetap, sehingga didapat qis

0 t  0
x(t )  
qist t  0
Maka dy (t )
  y (t )  KqistU (t )
dt

Solusi lengkap: y (t )  Cet /  Kqis (t   )

Transient Steady state
response response

Memasukan kondisi awal: y (t )  Kqis (e t /  t   )

y (t )
Kesalahan pengukuran
em  x(t )   qise t /  qis
K
Transient Steady
error state error
Sistem Orde Satu: Ramp Response

10

8
Output signal, y/K

6
Steady state
time lag = 
4
Steady state
2 error = qis

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
t/

Non-dimensional ramp response of first-order instrument

Sistem Orde Satu: Frequency Response

Dari respon sistem orde satu untuk masukan sinus: x(t )  A sin t
diperoleh
dy
  y  KA sin t D 1y(t )  KAsin t
dt

sin t  tan 1  

KA
Solusi lengkapnya : y (t )  Cet / 
1  ( ) 2
Transient Steady state Frequency
response =
response response
Jika yang dicari hanya steady state response , persamaan umumnya:

y(t )  Cet /  B( ) sin t   ( )

KA
B( ) 
1  ( ) 
2 1/ 2

 ( )   tan 1 
Untuk B() = amplitudo steady state response; () = pergeseran fasa
First-Order Instrument: Frequency
Response
B 1
M ( )  
KA 1   2 1/ 2  
1
The amplitude ratio M ( )  The phase angle is  ( )   tan 1 ( )
( ) 2  1
1.2 Dynamic error 0
-10
1.0 0
-20

Phase shift, ()

Amplitude ratio

-30

Decibels (dB)
.8 -2
-3 dB
0.707 -40
.6 -4
-50
-6
.4 -8 -60
-10 -70
.2 Cutoff frequency -80
-20
0.0 -90
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
 
Frequency response of the first order system

Dynamic error, () = M(): a measure of an inability of a system to

adequately reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency
Dynamic Characteristics
Frequency Response describe how the ratio of output and input changes
with the input frequency. (sinusoidal input)

Dynamic error, () = 1- M() a measure of the inability of a system or sensor to

adequately reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency

Bandwidth the frequency band over which M()  0.707 (-3 dB in decibel unit)

Cutoff frequency: the frequency at which the system response has fallen to
0.707 (-3 dB) of the stable low frequency.

0.35
tr 
fc
First-Order Systems: Frequency
Response
Ex: Inadequate frequency response
Suppose we want to measure
x(t )  sin 2t  0.3 sin 20t
x(t) With a first-order instrument whose  is 0.2 s and
static sensitivity K

Superposition concept:
For  = 2 rad/s: B(2 rad/s )  K
  21.8o  0.93K  21.8o
0.16  1

y(t)/K For  = 20 rad/s: B(20 rad/s )  K

  76o  0.24 K  76o
16  1

Therefore, we can write y(t) as

y(t )  (1)(0.93K ) sin( 2t  21.8o )  (0.3)(0.24K ) sin( 20t  76o )

y(t )  0.93K sin( 2t  21.8o )  0.072K sin( 20t  76o )

 Dynamic Characteristics
Example: A first order instrument is to measure signals with frequency content up to 100 Hz with
an inaccuracy of 5%. What is the maximum allowable time constant? What will be the phase shift
at 50 and 100 Hz?
Qo (i ) K
Solution: Define  M ( ) 
Qi (i )  2 2  1
M ( )  M (0)  1 
Dynamic error  
100%    1 100%
M (0)    1 
2 2

1
From the condition |Dynamic error| < 5%, it implies that 0.95   1.05
  1
2 2

But for the first order system, the term 1 /  2 2  1can not be greater than 1 so that the
constrain becomes 1
0.95  1
  1
2 2

Solve this inequality give the range 0    0.33

0.33
The largest allowable time constant for the input frequency 100 Hz is    0.52 ms
2 100 Hz
The phase shift at 50 and 100 Hz can be found from    arctan 

This give  = -9.33o and = -18.19o at 50 and 100 Hz respectively

Second-Order Systems

In general, a second-order measurement system subjected to arbitrary input, x(t)

2  D 2 2 
a2
d y(t )
 a
dy (t )
 a0 y(t )  b0 x(t )  2  D  1 y(t )  Kx(t )
dt 2 1
dt  n n 

1 d 2 y(t ) 2 dy(t )
  y(t )  Kx(t )
n dt
2 2
n dt

The essential parameters

b0
K = the static sensitivity
a0
a1
 = the damping ratio, dimensionless
2 a0 a2

a0 = the natural angular frequency

n 
a2
Second-Order Systems

Consider the characteristic equation

1 2 2
D  D 1  0
n2
n
This quadratic equation has two roots:
S1, 2  n  n  2 1

Depending on the value of , three forms of complementary solutions are possible

    2 1  t     2 1  t
Overdamped ( > 1): yoc (t )  C1e   n
 C2 e   n

Critically damped ( = 1): yoc (t )  C1e nt  C2tent

Underdamped (< 1): : 

yoc (t )  Ce nt sin n 1   2 t   
Second-Order Systems

Case I Underdamped (< 1): Case 2 Overdamped ( > 1):

S1, 2   n  n  2  1  
S1, 2      2 1 n
   j d

yt Case 3 Critically damped ( = 1):

 t S1, 2  n
Ae
yt
t
 1
sin( d t   )

 1

t
 Second-order Systems

Example: The force-measuring spring

consider a spring with spring constant Ks under applied force fi

and the total mass M. At start, the scale is adjusted so that xo = 0
when fi = 0;
forces=(mass)(acceleration)
dxo d 2 xo
fi  B  K s xo  M 2
dt dt
( MD 2  BD  K s ) xo  fi
the second-order model:
1
K m/N
Ks
Ks
n  rad/s
M
B

2 Ks M
Second-order Systems: Step Response

1 d 2 y 2 dy  D 2 2 
For a step input x(t)   y  KAU (t )  2  D  1 y(t )  KAU (t )
n dt n dt   n n
2 2


With the initial conditions: y = 0 at t = 0+, dy/dt = 0 at t = 0+

The complete solution:

y(t )    2  1     2 1 nt    2 1     2 1  t

Overdamped ( > 1):  e 
 e   n
1
KA 2  1
2
2  1
2

y (t )
Critically damped ( = 1):  (1  nt )e nt  1
KA

Underdamped (< 1): : y(t )

KA

e  nt
1  2

sin 1   2 nt    1  
  sin 1 1   2 
Second-order Instrument: Step Response
2
Td 
Ringing frequency:
d
2.0 =0 Ringing frequency: d  n 1   2
Output signal, y(t)/KA

0.25 Rise time decreases  with but increases

1.5
ringing
0.5

1.0 Optimum settling time can be obtained

from  ~ 0.7

.5
1.0
Practical systems use 0.6<  <0.8
2.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
nt
Non-dimensional step response of second-order instrument
Dynamic Characteristics

1.4
overshoot
1.2
Output signal, y(t)/KA

1.0 100%  5%

.8

.6

.4
settling
time
.2
rise time
0.0
0 5 10 15 20
Time, t (s)
Typical response of the 2nd order system
Second-order System: Ramp Response

1 d 2 y 2 dy
For a ramp input x(t )  qistU (t )   y  KqistU (t )
n dt n dt
2 2

With the initial conditions: y = dy/dt = 0 at t = 0+ qo 2q  nt  nt 

 qist  is 1  e (1  )
K n 2 
The possible solutions:

y (t ) 2qis  2 2  1  2  2  1     2 1  n t

Overdamped:  qist  1 e 
K n  4   12

 2 2  1  2  2  1     2 1  t 
 e   n 
4   1 2 

y(t ) 2q  t 
Critically damped:  qist  is 1  (1  n )ent 
K n  1 

Underdamped:
y(t )
K
 qist 
2qis 
1 
e  nt
n  2 1   2
 2

sin 1   nt   

   tan
2 1   2
1

2 2  1
Second-order Instrument: Step Response
2qis
Steady state error =
10 n

8 Steady state 2

Ramp input
Output signal, y(t)/K
time lag =
n
6

4  = 0.3
0.6
2 1.0
2.0

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time, t (s)

Typical ramp response of second-order instrument

Second-order Instrument: Frequency
Response
The response of a second-order to a sinusoidal input of the form x(t) = Asint

sin t   ( )
KA
y(t )  yoc (t ) 
 
1   / n   2 / n 
2 2 2
1/ 2

2
where  ( )   tan 1
 / n  n / 
The steady state response of a second-order to a sinusoidal input

ysteady (t )  B( ) sin t   ( )

KA 2
B( )   ( )   tan 1
1  /     2 /   
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
 / n  n / 

Where B() = amplitude of the steady state response and () = phase shift
B 1
M ( )  
 
KA 1   /  2 2  2 /  2 1/ 2
n n 
 Second-order Instrument: Frequency
Response

The amplitude ratio The phase angle

1 2
M ( )   ( )   tan 1
1  /     2 /   
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
 / n  n / 

0 0 = 0.1
2.0 6 -20
 = 0.1 0.3
-40 0.5

Phase shift, 

Amplitude ratio

1.5 0.3
-60

Decibel (dB)
3
1.0
0.5 -80
1.0 0 -100 2.0

-3 -120
1.0
.5 -6 -140
-10
2.0 -15 -160
0.0 -180
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
n n
Magnitude and Phase plot of second-order Instrument
 Second-order Systems
For overdamped ( >1) or critical damped ( = 1), there is neither overshoot nor
steady-state dynamic error in the response.
In an underdameped system ( < 1) the steady-state dynamic error is zero, but the
speed and overshoot in the transient are related.
1.4
arctan( d /  )
Rise time: tr  overshoot Td
d 1.2

  Output signal, q (t)/Kqis

Maximum
M p  exp  / 1   2 1.0
overshoot: o
 .8
Peak time: tp 
d peak
.6 time
Resonance
 r   n 1  2 2 .4
frequency: settling

Resonance M r  1 time
.2
amplitude: 2 1   2 rise time
0.0
0 5 10 15 20
where  = n ,  d   n 1   2 , and   arcsin( 1   2 ) Time, t (s)
 Dynamic Characteristics

Speed of response: indicates how fast the sensor (measurement system)

reacts to changes in the input variable. (Step input)

Rise time: the length of time it takes the output to reach 10 to 90% of full
response when a step is applied to the input

Time constant: (1st order system) the time for the output to change by
63.2% of its maximum possible change.

Settling time: the time it takes from the application of the input step until the
output has settled within a specific band of the final value.

Dead time: the length of time from the application of a step change at the
input of the sensor until the output begins to change