INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGY
Geological Techniques
Geochemical Techniques
Geophysical Techniques
Objectives
Exploration for oil and gas has long been considered an art as
well as a science.
Gulf of Mexico
Wyoming
Geological Surveys
Geological mapping is commonly the first mineral
exploration method undertaken on the ground. This
involves a visit by a geologist to look at rock outcrops
and to observe the location, orientation and
characteristics of the rocks or sediments exposed at
the surface.
It may involve vehicle access to a property, taking and
recording measurements and walking across the area.
It may also involve gathering small samples from rock
outcrops, soils or streams for chemical analysis.
This information can then be used to prepare a
geological map of the exploration area, recording the
rock types and structures
Subsurface Mapping
Figure 6.3
TUTORIAL
USE OF STRUCTURAL MAPS IN THE
DETERMINATION OF GROSS ROCK VOLUME
Structural map and longitudinal profile section showing top of salt, which is datum
for structure contours
Cross-Sections
seeing
the
Unseen
Exploration Methods
Geological Mapping
Remote Sensing Surface Data
Arial Photography Rock distributions
Field Studies Outcrops studies
Structural mapping
Geophysical Mapping Oil seep
Geochemistry
Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical Surveys
Geochemical surveys are undertaken to target areas for further
exploration. The surveys usually involve the collection of soil, rock
and/or sediment samples. These samples are sent for laboratory
analysis to identify areas of potential mineralisation. The surveys
may comprise:
◦ Soil sampling – Hand-held tools such as shovels, picks and hand augers
are used to collect samples of soil and subsoil. Samples are typically
collected on a regular grid pattern and involve collection of small
(approximately one kilogram) samples of soil. Power augers, either hand
operated or vehicle-mounted, may be used. Sampling programs
undertaken using hand tools are supported by a four-wheel motorbike
or vehicle. Holes excavated uring the program are typically back-filled
and vegetation replaced immediately following sampling.
◦ Stream sediment sampling – Approximately two kilogram samples of
sediment are collected within drainage lines. Three samples are usually
taken at the junction of two creeks: one downstream of the junction
and two upstream of the junction (in each of the merging drainage
lines). Samples are typically extracted using hand tools and may be
sieved during collection.
Geochemical Surveys
◦ Rock chip sampling – Up to a few kilograms of rock material from
outcrops are collected using hand-held tools. Rock chip samples will
usually be collected during geological mapping programs.Channel
sampling – A series of samples of soil or rock are collected along the
face of the excavation. This may be a road cutting, the face of an open-
cut or underground mine, a trench or similar.
The aim of collecting and analysing samples of soil, water and
sediment is to understand the chemical make-up of these samples,
and to enhance our understanding of the sources and mobilities of
chemical substances in the near-surface Earth environment.
Scientists can use these data to investigate how the rocks beneath
us are influencing the soils, sediments and waters around us.
Geochemistry is the link between geology - the study of rocks and
how they form, and the chemistry – what elements make up our
rock, soil and water.
This geo-environmental survey will help geologists and
environmental scientists to better understand how chemical
elements are naturally distributed in the surface environment.
Geophysical Surveys
Geophysical Surveys
OIL or GAS
3D Seismic Visualization
116
FAULTS – FEATURES OF FAULTS
reverse fault
117
5 Key Ingredients
1. Positioning / Surveying
3. Data Recording
4. Data Processing
5. Data Interpretation
General Workflow of Application of Geophysics in Petroleum Exploration
Back up slides
Seismic Reflection
This technique is used
extensively in oil exploration as
well as for metal ores.
Seismic Reflection 2
The seismic reflection method
works by bouncing sound
waves off boundaries between
different types of rock.
The reflections recorded are
plotted as dark lines on a
seismic section.
Seismic Reflection 3
This can be done on land or at
sea.
It can show up oil traps and
dipping beds.
It shows up rocks with
contrasting densities so ores show
up well as well as less dense rocks
like salt.
Seismic Refraction
This is basically the same as seismic
reflection but this time the waves
are refracted through the layers
before returning to the surface.
These waves hit the boundary
between 2 rocks and then travel
along the boundary before
returning to the surface.
Gravity Surveys
These use a gravimeter
that measure the gravity
at a given point.
These can be carried in
planes, ships or carried by
hand.
If there are denser rocks
below (ores) they will give
a positive gravity anomaly.
If there are less dense
rocks (salt/halite) there
will be a negative anomaly.
Magnetic survey using a proton magnetometer
They are fast, provide a great
deal of information for the cost
and can provide information
about the distribution of rocks
occurring under thin layers of
sedimentary rocks, useful when
trying to locate orebodies
Aeromagnetic surveys are
taken from a moving plane.
A magnetometer is the
instrument used to measure
the intensity of the magnetic
field at a particular place.
Magnetic survey using a proton magnetometer 2
The data for a survey can be
plotted as a contour map using
lines which join points of equal
"magnetic" value.
From these maps geoscientists
can locate magnetic bodies
(even if they are not
outcropping at the surface),
interpret the nature of
geological boundaries at depth,
find faults etc.
Electrical conductivity
(resistivity) can be measured by
applying a current directly into
the ground through a pair of
electrodes.
A voltage difference measured
across a second electrode pair
provides the necessary
information to calculate the
apparent earth resistivity.
The depth of investigation
depends on the electrode
separation and geometry, with
greater electrode separations
yielding resistivity
measurements to greater
depths.
Down hole logging surveys.
In the oil industry many
types of geophysical survey
can be carried out by
placing instruments down
the exploration borehole.
See page 35 of the oil book.
Such things as:
◦ Resistivity
◦ Sound wave velocity
◦ Gamma ray radiation
These give clues about:
◦ Porosity and permeability
◦ Dip of beds
◦ Fluid pressures
Geochemical Exploration Methods
There are only really two:
◦ Soil surveys/sampling
◦ Water surveys/sampling
Soil surveys give an
indication of the chemistry
of the underlying rocks
(that have been
weathered).
If on a slope the rock will
be further up slope from
the soil.
Geochemical Exploration Methods 2
With stream sampling
the chemistry of the
water will be influenced
by the rock it flows over.
The concentration of an
element will be highest
just downstream from
the ore.
The concentration will
then decrease as the
water gets diluted
further downstream.
Direct exploration methods:
There are 2 main methods:
◦ Drilling
◦ Mapping
Drilling
Drilling in an area is often the
only way of being absolutely
sure what is underground.
The geochemical and
geophysical methods will give
a clue.
Analysing the samples and
noting the depths at which
rocks occur can help decide
whether an ore is worth
mining.
Direct exploration methods 2
Mapping
If rocks are exposed
at the surface then
mapping them can
give a clear indication
of the geology not
only on the surface
but also underground.
You may be able to
work out an
underground cross
section.
It is usual for a whole
array of techniques to
be used together in
order to finally decide:
◦ Where the oil is.
◦ How much there is.
◦ The grade of the oil.
◦ Any geological problems.
◦ Whether it is worth
exploiting.