AKSU(2016/2017)

GSS 211
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

FACULTY OF NATURAL &

APPIED SCIENCES
 COURSE OUTLINE FOR GSS 211
• Understanding of Computing basics:
Data and information
Definition and classification of computer
• Historical development of computer system:
Hardware and software
• Computer organization:
Number system,
Data Representation Scheme
Structure of computer system
• Understanding of software concepts
and types
• Data communication
• Computer Networks
• Types
• Media
• Protocols and topologies
• Introduction to internet technology
 CHAPTER ONE
• A Computer is an electronic device that can accept,
store, process data and output information under
the control of a set of instructions (Program).
• Computing is the activity of using and improving
computer systems.
• This has evolved from devices like Abacus to super
computers.
•
SOME COMMON COMPUTING DEVICES

COMPUTING DEVICES INVENTORS

Mechanical Adding Machine Blaise Pascal and Jacquard loom

Blue print for modern computing and Charles Babbage (The father of
Analytical engine. Computer)

Theoretical computing based on Alan Turing

mathematical calculation.
INVENTORS DISCOVERIES YEAR
John Napier Logarithms 1600s
Robert Bissaker Slide rule
Blaise Pascal First Mechanical digital calculator using 1642
gears called the Pascaline.
Joseph Maie Used punch card to automate a weaving 1804
Jacquard loom
Charles P. Babbage Analytical engine 1812

Augusta Ada (First Suggested binary system should be used for 1840s
Programmer) storage rather than decimal system.
George Boole Developed Boolean logic for computer 1850s
Dr. Herman Hollerith circuitry. 1890
Introduced the First electromechanical
punched-card.

Lee De Forest Invented the Vacuum tube. 1906

FIRST GENERATION OF COMPUTER (1940-1956)
• Used Vacuum tube for processing.
• Used Machine languages code in form of punch cards.
• No parallel processing(Only one task at a time).
• Very large in size.
• Consumes more electricity .
• ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator and
Calculator) was the first such device (first digital computer).
• EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Computer) - First stored program computer.
• EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer) – Second stored-program computer.
 INVENTORS DISCOVERIES YEAR

Konrad Zuse Introduced Z3, the first programmable 1941

computer to solve engineering
equations using binary system.
Alan Turing Turing Machine and Colossus 1943

Howard Aiken Harvard Mark I, that can handle all 4 1944

arithmetic operation, Log ang Trig.
Dr. John Von Neumann Presented paper on stored-program 1945
concept.
John W. Mauchly & J. Developed ENIAC 1947
Presper Eckert, Jr
Maurice V. Wilkes Built EDSAC 1949
Mauchly, Eckert & Von Built EDVAC
SECOND GENERATION OF COMPUTER (1956- 1963)
• Used Transistors for processing.
• Transistors helped in reducing the size compared
to vacuum tubes that were very large.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
• Based on Purpose
• Based on Functionality.
• Based on Size
BASED ON PURPOSE
• General purpose: Used for a range of tasks.
• Specific purpose: Used for specific task.
BASED ON FUNCTIONALITY & DATA HANDLING
• Analog: Used for measuring quantities e.g
Voltage, Current, Humidity etc.
• Digital: performs calculations and logical
operations using binary number system.
• Hybrid: Combines the Analog & Digital features.
 BASED ON SIZE
• Super Computer: used for large amount of
mathematical calculation e.g Weather forecasting
• Mainframe Computer: can handle more
simultaneous program execution unlike the
super-computer.
• Mini-Computer: can handle 4 to 200 users
simultaneously.
• Micro or Personal Computer: e.g Destop, laptop,
palmtop, Notebook, ipad etc.
• Wearable Computer: so small in size, used
mostly in the hospitals e.g Insulin meter.
 COMPONENT OF A COMPUTER
• Hardware: The physical parts of the computer.
 Input devices: e.g Keyboard, Mouse
Output devices: e.g Printers, Monitors, Speakers
Processing Devices: e.g CPU
Storage Devices: e.g
• Software: These are programs and instructions
that enables the computer to function.
• Live-ware: refers to the computer user. E.g You.
• Firmware: refers to manufacturer’s setting e.g
ROM
 SOFTWARE
• These are programs and instructions that
enables the computer to function.
 System Software: programs which
facilitate the use of computer by the
users. E.g OS
Application Software: programs design to
perform specific user application. E.g Ms-
Word, Word perfect, Ms- Excel, ORACLE
etc.
Utility Software: programs design to
protect the computer system. E.g
Antivirus
 Computer Storage Elements
• Bit: This is the smallest unit of data
• Nibbles:- A nibble is a collection of four bits.
4bits = 1 Nibble
• Byte: It consist of 8 bits and is used to represent
one character of data in the computer memory. It
is the smallest addressable datum on a
microprocessor.
• Word:- a word is a group of 16 bits or 2 bytes
• Double word:- A pair of words
2 bytes = 1 word; 4 bytes = 1 double word
• Kilobytes(KB): one thousand bytes(1024 or
210)
• Megabyte(MB): one million bytes(1024 or 220)
• Gigabytes(GB): (230) one billion of bytes
• Terabytes(TB): (240) or one trillion of bytes.
• 2 commonly codes for representing characters
in computer system are:
 ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange.
 EBCDIC (Extended Binar.y Coded Decimal
Interchange Code)
 TYPES OF MEMORY
• Primary Memory(Main memory): This is the
fast electronic component of the computer
used to store programs for the CPU execution.
• It is volatile in nature. Subdivided into 2 types;
ROM(Read-only Memory): data can’t be change.
RAM(Random-Access memory): temporary
• Secondary Memory: this is the external
memory used for storing data and files
permanently for future use. E.g Flash drive,
floppy disks or hard disk.
 NUMBER SYSTEM
• A set of values used to represent different
quantities is known as Number System.
• Digital computers represent all kinds of data
and information in binary numbers.
• The total number of digits used in a number
system is called its base or radix.
• The base is written after the number as
subscript such as 10248
 TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM
• Basically we have four (4) kinds of
Number system
• Decimal number system: use by human
• Binary number system: use by
computers
• Octal number system
• Hexadecimal number system: used only
for programmers or scientist for
convenience.
 DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
• The number system that we use in our day-
to-day life is called the decimal number
system.
• Decimal number system has base 10 as it
uses 10 digits from 0 to 9.
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
• This is the only number system that the
computer understands
• It operates in base 2 and uses only two
digits 0’s and 1’s
• 0 – stands for “off” and 1 – stands for “on”
 NUMBERING SYSTEM TABLE
BINARY (Base 20 DECIMAL (Base 10) HEXADECIMAL (Base 16)
0 0 0
1 1 1
0010 2 2
0011 3 3
0100 4 4
0101 5 5
0110 6 6
0111 7 7
1000 8 8
1001 9 9
1010 10 A
1011 11 B
1100 12 C
1101 13 D
1110 14 E
1111 15 F
 Binary Number System
Given the binary number 101012 calculate its
decimal equivalent.
STEPS BINARY NUMBER DECIMAL CONVERSION

Step 1 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21)

+ (1 x 20))10

Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 101012 2110

CONVERSION FROM DECIMAL TO BINARY
Example 1: Convert 2110 to Binary
2 21

2 10 R 1
2 5 R0
2 2 R1
2 1 R0
0 R1
 Conversion from Hex to Decimal
• Given the Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
Calculating its Decimal Equivalent
Steps Hex Number Decimal Equivalent

Step 1
19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10

Step 2
19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10

Step 3
19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4
19FDE16 10646210
 How to Convert from Hex to Binary
Step 1: Convert each Hex digit to 4 Binary digits
Example: Convert (4E)16 to binary:
(4)16 = (0100)2
(E)16 = (1110)2, So (4E)16 = (01001110)2
• Example 2: Convert (4A01)16 to binary:
(4)16 = (0100)2
(A)16 = (1010)2
(0)16 = (0000)2
(1)16 = (0001)2
So
(4A01)16 = (0100101000000001)2
BINARY, DECIMAL AND HEXADECIMAL ARITHMETIC
BINARY DECIMAL HEXADECIMAL

1111100 124 7C
+ 10010 + 18 + 12
10001110 142 8E

1110 1001 B7
- 0101 - 0101 + 3A
1001 0100 F1
 LOGICAL OPERATIONS ON BITS
• There are 4 main logical operations on Hex and
Binary numbers:
 AND: It is a dyadic operation i.e it accepts
exactly two operands. If one or both the
operands is 0, the result is 0, else is 1.
OR(Inclusive-OR): If one of the operands or
both is 1, the result is 1 else is 0. it is also dyadic.
XOR (exclusive-or): If both operands is the
same, the result is 0, else is 1. it is also dyadic.
NOT: It is a Monadic i.e it accepts only one
operand.
 SIGNED AND UNSIGNED NUMBERS
• Negative values is rept -128……..-1
• Positive values is rept 0………….127 i.e with 8bits
• In general, with n-bits, we can rept, the signed
values in the range 2 (n-1) to +2 (n-1) -1
• NEGATIVE NUMBERS
• The 4 common representations for signed
binary numbers are:
• Sign-and-magnitude
• Excess
• 1’s complement
• 2’s complement
 SIGN-AND-MAGNITUDE
• The prefix bit is used to indicate the sign of
the no.
• i.e A Positive value sign bit = 0, While
• negative value sign bit = 1.
• Example 1: 8 bit sign-and-magnitude rept of
-75 is 11001011
• Example 2: 8 bit sign-and-magnitude rept of
-82 is 11010010
• An 8-bit sign-and-magnitude allows values
b/w -127 to +127
 1’S COMPLEMENT 8-bits binary system
• For positive values, the 1’s complement is the
same as the binary representation.
• E.g 75 = 01001011 both in binary and 8-bit 1’s
complement system.
• Given a number X in n-bits binary number,
• -X = 2n -X-1, where n = 8
• E.g: 75 = (01001011)2 in an 8-bit binary system
-75 = (10110100)1s in the 8-bits 1’s complement
N/B: Invert all the bits in binary to get the 1’s
complement.
 2’S COMPLEMENT 8-bits binary system
• For positive values, the 2’s complement is the
same as the binary representation.
• Given a number X in n-bits binary number,
• -X = 2n -X, where n = 8
• E.g: 75 = (01001011)2 in an 8-bit binary
system
• -75 = (10110101)2s in the 8-bits 2’s complement
• i.e Using the formula above;
• 28 – 75 = 256 – 75 = 181(10110101)
• -75 = 181= (10110101)2s
 RULES FOR 2’S COMPLEMENT 8-Bits
• Given any number, to get the 2’s complement, do
the following:
• Step 1: Get the 8-bits binary equivalent of the
number without the sign
• Step 2: Invert all the bits in binary to get the
negative value of the number ( i.e 1’s
complement)
• Step 3: Add 1 to the inverted bits to get the
2’s complement.
• N/B: 2’s Complement = 1’s Complement + 1
 RADIX COMPLEMENT
• In the decimal number system, the radix
complement is the 10’s complement.
• Therefore, the 10’s complement of the
number N is obtained by subtracting each
digit of the number from 9 and then adding 1
to the LRD of the number so formed.
• E.g 1: Find the Radix complement of 22?
99 – 22 = 77 + 1 = 78
• E.g 2: Find the Radix complement of 948
999 – 948 = 51 +1 = 52
 DIMINISHED RADIX COMPLEMENT
• In the decimal number system the
diminished radix complement is 9’s
complement. This is obtained by subtracting
each digit of the number from 9.
• E.g 1: Find the Diminished Radix complement
of 22?
99 – 22 = 77
• E.g 2: Find the Radix complement of 948
999 – 948 = 51
 ADDITION IN 1’S COMPLEMENT 4-bits

• E.g 1: 3 + 4 =7 E.g 2: 4 + (-7) = -3

3 = 0011 4 = 0100
4 = 0100 -7 = 1000
0111 1100
• E.g 3: (-2) + (-4) = -6 E.g 4: (-3) + (-6)
-2 = 1101 -3 = 1100
-4 = 1011 -6 = 1001
11000 10101
+ 1 + 1
1001 0110
ADDITION IN 2’S COMPLEMENT 4-bits

• E.g 1: 3 + 4 =7 E.g 2: 4 + (-7) = -3

3 = 0011 (4)2’s = 0100
+ 4 = 0100 (-7)2’s = 1001
0111 1101
• E.g 3: (6) + (-3) = 3 E.g 4: (-2) + (-6) = -8
6 = 0110 -2 = 1110
-3 = 1101 -6 = 1011
+ 10011 + 11000
 SUBTRACTION IN COMPLEMENT SYSTEMS
• Subtraction is usually done by a combination
of addition and complement since it is a bit
complex than ordinary addition.
• i.e A – B = A + (-B)
• E.g : (5)10 – (3)10 in 4-bits 2’s complement
binary
is the same as (5)10 + (-3)10 = (2)10
• (5)2’s = 0101 OR (5)2’s = 0101
(3)10 = 0011 (-3)2’s = 1101
0010 10010
 Computer System Organization
Basic functions Of a Computer
• Data Processing:- i.e data transformation
• Data storage:- Computer stores different kinds of
data in different ways
• Data Movement:- The computer also moves data
from one place to place. It also uses network cables
and modems to communicate with other
machines.
• Control:- any computer must be able to control
the three functions above. This is done be
providing timing, control signals and executing the
instructions of the program.
 Types of Computer Memory
• Basically, we have 2 types of memory namely;
• Primary (Main memory):- This is used to store
information for immediate access by the CPU.
 RAM(Random Access memory):- it holds data
temporarily and it is volatile in nature.
 ROM(Random Access memory):- holds data that are
fixed and cannot be changed. E.g When a computer
is powered on, a set of instructions stored in Rom
called ROM BIOS is copied to RAM to run the system.
• Secondary Memory:- This stores information
permanently. E.g floppy disk, hard disk, flash drive,
CD-ROM etc.
 The System Bus
• A bus is a collection of wires on which electrical
signals pass between components in a computer
system.
• The system bus connects the various
components of a machine.
Types of Bus
• Data Bus
• Control Bus
• An Address Bus
These busses vary from processor to processor.
 Data Bus
• It is an internal partway across which data are passed
to and from the processor or memory.
• The amount of data a data bus can handle is called
the bandwidth
• The data bus defines the size of the processor.
• A typical data bus is 32-bits wide.
The control Bus
• It is an electrical collection of signals
• It controls how the processor communicates with the
system.
• It is made up of “read and write” signals which
specify the direction of data flow.
 MONITORS
• Monitors is the standard computer output
device.
• Computer monitors and television share similar
technologies but differs in application based on
the brain ability.

TYPES OF MONITORS
 CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
LED (Light Emitting Diode)
 BASIC MONITOR TERMINOLOGIES
• Display size: screen size (measured diagonally for
LCD and plasma. Display aspect ratio.
• Flat Screen and Flat Panel: flat screen is
applicable to CRT monitors and flat panel is
applicable to LCD and LED.
• Digital and HDTV signals: DTV signals are
transmitted as a stream of digital data represented by
patterns of 1’s and 0’s.
 The lowest level- standard definition digital(SDTV)
 Highest level – High definition digital signal
• Pixel: pixel are substances that helps in producing
images on the computer using small dots, each dot
contains tiny red, green and blue tread.
• Resolution and Dot pitch: The smaller and closer
the pixels are to one another, the clearer the picture
appears.
• Screen size and viewing distance: resolution for
monitors
• Screen-aspect ratio: this is resolution imposition i.e
against the native resolution. N/B it is not
applicable to LCD monitors.
• Refresh rate and frame rate: Refresh rate is the no
of times a complete image is drawn on the screen
per second, while frame rate signifies how often the
image being displayed is repeated per fraction of
second before it is changed.
• Progressive scan and interlaced scan: this has to do
with pictures/image formation.
• Contrast ratio and brightness: contrast ratio
compares b/w white and black pixels, while
brightness is a measurement of the amount of light
produced by the monitor. Low brightness is often
recommended.
• Viewing angle: acceptable horizontal viewing angle
is 110 degrees for a person.
 Comparison table for Monitors

CRT MONITORS LCD AND LED MONITORS

Heavy weight Light weight

Occupy more space Occupy less space

Low power consumption

High power consumption

High Radiation and Low Low Radiation and high

resolution resolution
 Monitor Selection
• Size and resolution: the bigger the size, the better
the resolution and the pixel density.
• Display panel types: -Twisted Nematics(TN) panel,
Vertical Alignment(VA), In-plane switching(IPS)
panels and Plane-Line switching(PLS) panel.
• Refresh Rate: 60-120Hz refresh rate, N/B TN has
high refresh rate.
• Anti-Glare coating: this depends on the position
and lighting of the monitor.
• Stand and Swivel option: it is optional.
• Connector Types: ensure your monitor
synchronizes with your connectors(ports)
 CRT (Cathode Ray) TECHNOLOGY
• It forms an image when an electron beam travels
across the screen, causing the pixels to glow.
• It is based on analog technology
• Progressive scan replaced interlacing
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) TECHNOLOGY
• This creates an image by blocking light, a backlight
passes through a layer of pixels, which are formed
by liquid crystal molecules, sandwiched b/w two
layers of polarized glass.
• It uses progressive scan.
 PRINTERS
• Printers is one of the most common computer
output devices.
• Printers are electro- mechanical devices which
converts text and graphical documents from
electronic form to the physical form we can see
and touch. It is an hardware device.
• The rapid growth of the PC technology was
accompanied by a rise in the speed, print quality
and overall performance of printers to help
produce output of computer data.
• The ability to produce a printed version (hard copy)
of a document is a primary function of a PC.
 TYPES OF PRINTERS
• Basically Printers are divided into two broad groups
namely;
• Impact Printers and
• Non- impact Printers
• IMPACT PRINTERS: Here, a key strikes the paper to
make a letter or character. E.g Daisy wheel, Dot
matrix and Line Printer.
• NON-IMPACT PRINTERS: Here, the image to be
printed is first formed on an intermediary support,
then it is transferred onto the paper, there is no
direct contact between the printing assembly and
paper. E.g Ink-jet printers, Laser printers and Plotter
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
IMPACT PRINTERS NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

Makes simultaneous multiple No simultaneous multiple copies

copies

Low speed and low quality text High speed and high quality text

Very noisy Quite and does not produce

disturbing sound.
 COMPARISON TABLE
PRINTERS PRINT MECHANISM USED (KEY COMPONENT) PRINT CAPACITY (PER
MINUTE)

Dot Matrix Print head, 9-24 pins and solenoids. Not expensive. 600-36,000 characters

Daisy wheel Daisy(petal) wheel, servo motor. It does not print 1,500-3,300
graphics, and it prints similar to a typewriter. characters
Line Printers 1,200-6,000 lines

a) Drum Drum(solid, cylindrical drum) 300-2,000 characters

b) Chain Chain wrapped around two pulleys 400-2,500 characters

c) Band Steel band divided into five sections of 48 240 characters

characters each
Ink-Jet Forms image or character with little dot using tiny 15,000 characters
droplets of ink. It also has a print-head using tiny
nozzles called jets

Laser Use a very fine powder called ‘Toner’

PROCESSES INVOLVE IN LASER PRINTING
• Communication: PC uses a parallel port to
communicate while Network printers uses an
internal Ethernet adapter to connect to the
network cable. Newest printers offer USB
connections either as their only port or along with
a parallel port.
Handsharking: this a process whereby the printer
picks data from its buffer and signal the PC to
continue printing activity.
Spooling: this is the process whereby printer
temporarily stores multiple print jobs as they
await processing in order as they arrived.
• Processing: this involves examining incoming data
to distinguish the control commands from the
actual content of the document.
• Formatting: this is the interpretation of the
commands that dictate how the content is to be
placed on the page.
• Rasterizing: this is the final stage of data
interpretation process, whereby the controller
processes the formatting commands to produce
the pattern of tiny dots that will be applied to the
page.
• Laser Scanning:
• Toner Application:
 COLOUR PRINTERS
• This printer uses four color toners (ink cartridges
in case of ink-jet printers) instead of one black
color toner as the case in black and white printers.
These colors are;
• Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black.
• They use 4 different drums, each is associated
with the separate color toner.
• Some other printers are designed for special
purposes which vary from the normal page
printing purpose.
 SOME SPECIAL TYPES OF PRINTERS
• PHOTO PRINTERS: This ink-jet printers are color
printers that produce photo lab quality pictures on
photo papers.
• DYE SUBLIMATION PRINTERS: These are the latest
innovative printers that are specially designed for the
high quality photo printing.
• PORTABLE PRINTERS: They are small light weight ink-
jet or thermal printers specially designed for users to
carry out with the laptop while travelling.
• MULTI-FUNCTION PRINTERS: These are sometimes
referred to as “all in one printer”, they have the
combination of various functionalities like printer,
scanner, photo copier, fax etc.
 PRINTER INTERFACES
• Serial Interface: This is the oldest printer interface.
It is hard to configure because of its bit-at-a-time
structure.
• SCSI Interface (Small computer system interface):
they where also hard to configure.
• Parallel Interface: it uses one end to workstation
and one end into the parallel port on the printer.
• USB Interface (Universal Serial Bus): this requires
no formal configuration.
• Infrared: they are serial connection using light and
air instead of wires to make connection.
• Wireless: this uses a radio signal to send print
jobs to the printer.
• Network connection: this shares printer the
moment you have access to the network.

USB CONNECTORS
• There are several types of USB connectors.
• Any connector mounted on the host or device is
called the receptacles, and the connector
attached to the cable is called the plug.
• Recently, we have 7 USB connectors namely;
• Standard-A
• Standard-B
• Mini-A
• Mini-B
• Micro-A
• Micro-AB
• Micro-B
 COMPUTER NETWORKS
• Network: A Network refers to any interconnected
group of people or things capable of sharing
meaningful information with one another.
• E.g A Network of Lawyers, Lecturers, or a network of
computers (Here, computers are the things sharing the
meaningful information.
• Computer Network refers to a collection of computers
and devices connected by a communication channels.
• In addition to data sharing, computer networks can also
share resources like Printers, Scanners etc.
• Node: This refers to any computer or digital device
using the network. E.g 10 nodes in a network.
• Links: are the physical connections
(wired/wireless) that carry messages b/w nodes.
• Standalone System: this refers to a machine
/computer that is not connected with other
devices.
• Peer-to-Peer Network: This is a computer
network with no dedicated server.
• Client-Server network: This is a computer
network whereby one or more systems(Server)
perform critical functions on behalf of the other
systems(Client). E.g User authentication,
databases etc as in Banks, Institutions etc.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY(ARCHITECTURE)
• This refers to the layout pattern/arrangement of the
various element (Links, nodes etc) of a computer
network.
• This arrangement can be classified into two;
• Physical Topology: This refers to the physical
placement of the network various components, like
the device location, cable installation etc.
• Logical Topology: This shows how data flows within a
network, regardless of its physical design or
placement.
• N/B: The physical topology b/w two or more nodes in
network might be the same, yet they are logically
different and vice versa.
 TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
• There are different kinds of network topologies in
a computer network, these includes;
• Point-to-Point: This is the simplest form of
network topology. It is faster and more reliable
because there is a direct link b/w two nodes. It
can only be implemented in a small area where
nodes are in close proximity. E.g A cyber café.
• Bus Topology: Here, one main cable acts as a
backbone for the network, and all nodes are
directly connected to that main cable.
• Star Topology: Each node is connected to the
central hub, using a point-to-point link.
• Ring Topology: Here, the computers in a network
are connected in a circular fashion and the data
travels in one direction. Each computer is logically
connected to the next computer, forming a single
pathway for signals through the network.
• Mesh Topology: Here, every node has a direct
Point-to-point connection to every othe node in
the network.
• Tree Topology: This combines multiple star
topologies onto a Bus.
 TOPOLOGIES COMPARISON TABLE
TYPES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

P-TO-P • It is very simple and easy to install • Not suitable for large network
structure
BUS •Easy to install •Not Robust
•Low cost of installation •Difficult to troubleshoot
• Not suitable for large network
structure
STAR •Low startup cost •More expensive than Bus structure(
•Accommodates expansion(nodes) b/cos it requires more cables)
•Robust in nature
RING •Easy to install and troubleshoot •Not suitable for expansion(nodes)
•Data can travel over long distances •Not Robust

MESH • It is Robust in nature •Very expensive

•Good security of data •Redundant links

TREE • support network expansion and Very expensive to install

modification
 CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORK
• Network classification is based on two broad
groups;
Classification by transmission Technology
Classification by Size
• CLASSIFICATION BY TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGY:
This is further divided into; P-P and Broadcast
• Point-to-Point Links:This connects individual pairs
of systems. Messages are transfer from a source
to a destination across the network through a p-p
links.
• N/B: Any P-t-P transmission with one sender and
one receiver is called Unicasting (E.g Phone calls)
• Broadcasting: Here, the communication channel
is shared by all machines on the network. Packets
sent by one machine on the network are received
by all other machines on that network. E.g A
Lecturer delivering lectures to students.
• CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE: This is further sub-
divided into;
• PAN(Personal Area Network): This allows devices
to communicate over the range of a person. E.g
Wireless network that connects a computer with
its peripherals. It works within a square meter
distance.
• LAN(Local Area Network): They are privately owned
networks that operates within a single building like
a home or office. It works within a distance of 10m-
1000m. LANs used by companies are called
Enterprise network. The basic technology used is
Ethernet. (PLS READ-UP LAN TECHNOLOGY).
• MANs(Metropolitan Area Networks): This covers a
city or a range of cities. E.g Cable television
networks available in many cities. It operates within
1km-10km.
• WANs(Wide Area Networks): This spans a large
geographical area such as a State/Country or World.
• E.g Internet, which is the most popular WAN. It
operates within 100km-1000km. The key
technology used in WANs are SONET, Frame Relay
and ATM.
• Internetworks: A collection of interconnected
network is called an Internetwork or Internet. It is
the interconnected network in a generic sense.
• N/B: A machine that makes a connection b/w two
or more network and provides the necessary
translation, both in terms of hardware and software
is called a gateway.
• Gateways are distinguished by the layer at which
they operate in the protocol hierarchy.
 NETWORK PROTOCOLS
• Network Protocols refers to the standards that
allow computers to communicate, this protocols
establishes the rules and encoding specifications
for sending data. Examples of network protocols
are TCP(Transmission Control Protocol),
IP(Internet Protocols), NetBIOS etc.
• These Protocols defines the procedures for
determining the type of error checking that
should be applied.
• Protocols also defines how computers identify
one another on the network, the data form and
processes.
THE OSI(OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION) MODEL
• This Model specifies how dissimilar computing devices
such as Network Interface Cards(NICs), bridges and
routers exchange data over a network.
• This is being implemented by using Protocols in seven
layers. The Layers are;
• Layer 7(Application): This layer supports the
application and end-user processes. Security and
privacy is considered here. FTP (File Transfer Protocol),
HTTP(Hypertext Transfer Protocol), telnet etc are all
examples of protocols in this layer.
• Layer 6 (Presentation/Syntax): Here, information is
translated back and front b/w application and network
formats. It also encrypts data.
• Layer 5(Session): This layer initiates connection b/w
applications.
• Layer 4(Transport): This layer ensures complete
data transfer. It also handles error recovery. TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) are operates here.
• Layer 3(Network): This layer handles all routing,
forwarding, addressing, internetworking, error
detection, congestion control and packet
switching/sequencing.
• Layer 2(Data-Link): Information in data packets are
encoded and decoded into bits within this layer. It
also correct errors from the physical layer.
• It is made up of two sub layers;
MAC (Media Access Control): This controls the
way nodes gain access to data and transmit it
within the network.
 LLC (Logical Link Control): This controls frame
synchronization, flow control and error checking.
• Layer 1(Physical): This layer conveys the bit
stream through the network at the electrical and
mechanical level. It also enables hardware to send
and receive data over a carrier such as cabling.
 TERM PAPER (ASSIGNMENT)
DEPARTMENT TOPICS
•PHYSICS THE IMPACT OF ICT IN NANO
•GEOLOGY TECHNOLOGY. (PHY-01)
(GEO-01)
•MICRO-BIOLOGY
•MARINE BIOLOGY THE IMPACT OF ICT IN BIO-
•ZOOLOGY INFORMATICS.
•BOTANY E.G: (MCB-02)
•GENETICS/BIOTECHNOLOGY

•CHEMISTRY THE IMPACT OF ICT IN CHEM-

INFORMATICS.
(CHEM-03)
• YOUR WORK SHOULD BE BETWEEN
10 - 15 PAGES.

• SUBMISSION DATE: 02/07/2016

• TEST DATE: 02/07/2016

 Wireless Networking
• Wireless network allows devices to communicate
over the airwaves and without wires by using
standard networking protocols. These protocols
are;
• Bluetooth: This standard provides short-range
wireless connections between computers and
other equipment.
• 802.11: This is an IEEE specification for a wireless
LAN air link.
• 802.11b (Wi-Fi): This is an industry standard for
wireless LANs. It support more users and operate
over long distances, but can also operate at 11MB
per second over short distances.
• 802.11g: This is the most recently approved
standard. It offers wireless transmission over
short distances at 54MB/Sec. Both .11b and .11g
operate at 2.4GHz range and are compatible.
COMPONENTS OF A NETWORK
These are the devices and equipment that work
together in a network.
• They are used to provide services and processes.
• Services includes; email and web hosting.
• Processes are the functionalities that direct and
moves the messages in the network.
• Basically, we have 3 major network component;
 End devices
 Intermediary devices
 Network Media.
• Devices and Media are the physical elements or
hardware of the network. E.g Laptop, PC, Router,
cables etc used to connect the devices.
• End Devices: This are network devices that people are
most familiar with. E.g Network Printers security
cameras, Computers, Smartphone etc.
• Host Devices: This is either the source or destination
of a message transmitted over the network. Every host
on a network is identified by an address.
• In a Modern networks, a host can act as a client, a
server, or both, depending on the software that is
installed on it.
• Intermediary Devices: These devices interconnect
end devices in a network.
• Network Media: Any communication must pass through
a medium. This medium provides the channel over which
the message can pass from the source to the destination.
• Types of Media: Modern networks uses 3 kinds of
media;
• Metallic wire (Copper): encode data into electrical impulse
• Fiber Optic: uses pulse of light from infrared or light ranges
• Wireless: uses electromagnetic waves.
 The Internet
• The internet is a conglomerate of networks
(comprising of LANs &WANs). It is not owned by any
individual or group
• Intranet: This is an internet that is privately owned
by an organization, access is only granted to
authorized users.
• Extranet: This is an internet that is used as an
outsource in an organization.
 Internet Domain Name System (DNS)
• This system helps to resolve host name to an address.
• IP Address: This a unique logical address assigned to
each machine over the network. It is a 32-bits (4
bytes) long. It is made up of Network and host
component.
• URL (Uniform Resource Locator): This is a web
address which uniquely identifies a document over
the internet.
 Absolute URL: is a complete address of a resource on
the web.
 Relative URL: this a partial address of a web page.
 Internet Protocols
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): This is a
connection oriented protocol.
• IP (Internet Protocol): it is a connectionless and
unreliable protocol.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): it is connectionless
protocol
• FTP (File transfer Protocol): it is used to copy files
from one host to the other. It uses port 20 for data
connection an 21 for control connection.
• Telnet: this is a protocol used to log into a remote
computer on the internet.
 Websites
• This is a location on web and is hosted on a web
server. It is accessed using an address called URL.
• Static websites: Here, user can only read the
information without modification. It is also
known as flat or stationary websites.
• Dynamic websites: this shows different
information at different time and you can make
changes to the information.
• WWW (Word wide web): this is the universe of
network accessible information. It is an
embodiment of knowledge.
 Email
• Email is a service which allows us to send the
message in electronic mode over the internet.
• Email Message Components;
 Email header
Greetings
Text
signature