• Basal Ganglia

• The term basal ganglia(or basal nuclei) is applied to five interactive

structures on each side of the brain. They are telencephalic in origin and
form the extrapyramidal system
• BG is an accessory motor system that functions in close association with
the cerebral cortex. It receives most input signals from the cerebral cortex
and also returns output signals to the cortex
• BG plays an important role in coordination of skilled movts, regulation of
automatic associated movts and control of muscle tone by sending output
signals to motor cortex, reticular formation and spinal cord.
• They are masses of gray matter submerged in subcortical substance of
cerebral hemisphere
• they are the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, sub-thalamic
nucleus of Luys and substantia nigra
• the caudate nucleus and the putamen collectively form the striatum, the
putamen and the globus pallidus collectively form the lenticular nucleus
Primary motor Areas
Basal Ganglia Interconnection
• The Corpus Striatum
• The corpus striatum is situated at the base of the cerebral
hemispheres close to the thalamus. It is divided into two functionally
distinct parts by the internal capsule. These are the caudate nucleus
and the lentiform nucleus
• The caudate nucleus and the putamen (which are phylogenetically
similar) form one unit called the striatum, while the globus pallidus
forms another the pallidum
• The Caudate Nucleus is an elongated arched gray mass that lies
medial to the internal capsule. It has a head and a tail. It extends
along the dorsolateral surface of the thalamus and ends in
amygdaloid nucleus
• The substantia nigra has a pars compacta region which uses
dopamine as neurotransmitter and a pars reticulate region which uses
GABA as a neurotransmitter.
ed
• The Lenticular nucleus is wedged shape situated lateral to internal
capsule. It is divided into the outer putamen and the inner globus
pallidus by the external medullary lamina.
• Substantia Nigra:
• Situated below red nucleus. It consists of a large pigmented(rich in
iron) and small non-pigmented cells.
• Subthalamic Nucleus :
• Situated lateral to red nucleus and dorsal substantia nigra.
Components Afferent Efferent

eas
Corpus Straitum Thalamic nuclei to caudate and
putamen
Thalamic nuclei
Subthalamic N
Cerebral cortex to caudate and Red N
putamen Sub Nigra
Sub Nigra to putamen Hypothalamus
Subthalamic to globus pallidus Reticular Formation

Subtantia Nigra Putamen Putamen

Frontal lobe
Sup Colliculus
Mamillary body of Hypothalamus
Medial and lateral leminisci
Red nucleus

Sub-thalamic N of Luys Globus pallidus Globus pallidus

Red N
• Motor Functions of the BG
• One of the principal roles of the BG in motor control is to function in
association with the corticospinal system to control complex patterns
of motor activity. For example writing. Damage to the BG can result in
crude writing as though one is learning to write for the first time.
• other patterns are cutting paper with scissors; hammering nails;
shooting a basketball through a loop; passing a football, throwing a
baseball; most types of vocalization; controlled eye movements; most
skilled movements performed subconsciously.
• There are two major neural circuits of BG
• Putamen and Caudate circuits
• Neuronal pathways of the Putamen circuit
• They begin mainly in the premotor and supplementary areas of the
motor cortex and in the somatosensory areas of the sensory cortex
BG connections
• Then they pass to the putamen (bypassing the caudate) then to the
internal portion of the global pallidus, next to the ventroanterior and
ventrolateral relay nuclei of the thalamus and finally return to the cerebral
primary motor cortex and to portions of the premotor and supplementary
cerebral areas closely associated with the primary cortex.
• In close association with this primary putamen circuit are ancillary circuits
that pass from the putamen thru the external globus pallidus, the
subthalamus and the substantia nigra-finally returning to the motor cortex
via the thalamus.
• THE CAUDATE CIRCUIT
• The neural connections between the caudate nucleus and the
corticospinal motor control system are somewhat different from those of
the putamen circuit.
• This is partly so because the caudate nucleus extends into all lobes of the
cerebrum
• Furthermore the caudate nucleus receives large amounts of its inputs from
the association areas of the cerebral cortex
• The caudate nucleus plays a key role in the cognitive control of motor
activities e/g a person seeing a lion and responds instantenously and
automatically by 1.turning away 2.beginning to run 3.attempting to
climb over a tree. The cognitive control of motor activity determines
these sub-conscious patterns of movt necessary for achieving a
complex goal
• EFFECT OF BG IN SCALING AND TIMING OF MOVT INTENSITY
• The brain has the capability of
1.determining how rapid the movt is to be performed
2. controlling how large the movt will be
For instance writing an alphabet “slowly” or “rapidly”; “small” or
“large”
• General Functions of BG
• Control of muscle tone: they exert inhibitory effects on muscle tone
by inhibiting the gamma motor neurons. As such lesion of the BG
increases muscle tone significantly
• Control of Reflex motor activity: reflex muscular activities esp those
for maintenance of posture (visual and labyrinthine reflexes). Lesions
can result in abnormal reflexes
• Control of Motor activity: BG is able to regulate voluntary, conscious
(cognitive earlier described) and sub-conscious movts. Though
voluntary movts are initiated by cerebral cortex the BG controls it.
That is why movts are awkward and inaccurate during BG lesions due
to loss of this control. The sub-conscious occur during trained motor
activities e.g sewing, paper cutting, nail hammering etc
• Control of Automatic Associated Movts: these movts occur with other
motor activities. For instance, swinging of the arms while walking,
certain facial expressions while talking or working. Lesions can cause
absence of automatic associated movts- statue-like body
• Role in wakefulness: because of its connection with the reticular
formation the BG (globus pallidus in particular) is involved in
wakefulness. Therefore extensive lesion of the G.Pallidus can cause
drowsiness
• BG NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Different neuronal pathways within the BG secrete different types of
NTs
1. Dopamine:released by dopaminergic fibres from substantia nigra to
corpus striatum aka doparminergic nigro-striatal fibres
2. GABA: secreted by intrinsic fibres of c.striatum and s.nigra
3. Acetylcholine:released by pathway running from the cortex to the
caudate nucleus and putamen
4.Substance P: released by fibres from g.pallidus to s.nigra
5. Noradrenaline: secreted by fibres between BG and reticular
formation
6. Glutamic acid: secreted by fibres from sub-thalamic nucleus to
globus pallidus and s.nigra
7. Enkephalin, Norepinephrine ans serotonin: secreted by multiple
general pathways from the brainstem
8. Glutamate: secreted by multiple glutamate pathways providing most
excitatory signals. This balances out the large numbers of inhibitory
transmitters like dopamine, GABA and serotonin.
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
• Agnosia:inability to accurately perceive objects due to lesion of the
posterior parietal cortex. This is so because the caudate circuit of the
BG functions mainly with the association areas of the cerebral cortex
such as the posterior parietal cortex. Also, in such lesions there is
personal neglect syndrome a situation where such individual is
almost oblivious of the existence of one side of his/her body. Lesion
of the right cortex will affect the left side of the body.
• Parkinson’s Disease: aka paralysis agitans. A slowly progressive
degenerative dx of the nervous system associated with widespread
destruction of that portion of the substantia nigra (pars compacta)
that sends dopamine-secreting fibres to the caudate nucleus and
putamen.
• Cause remains mainly unknown
• The disease is characterized by :
1.Rigidity of muscles 2. Involuntary tremor at rest 3-6 cycles per seconds 3.
Slowness of movt (bradykinesia); ultimately serious difficulty in initiating
movt (akinesia) 4. Postural instability with impaired reflexes leading to poor
balance and falls 5. Loss of normal gait i.e festinant gait. Quick short steps,
bending forward as if trying to catch up the centre of gravity 6. Speech
problems esp slurred, soft speech 7. Dyspahgia 8. Fatigue 9. Dementia may
develop in later stages.
Underlying Mechanism of the Disease :
Dopamine secreted by the dopaminergic fibres is an inhibitory NT. The
destruction of this pathway from any cause would result in the caudate and
putamen to be overtly active and possibly cause continuous output of
excitatory signals to the corticospinal motor control system. These could
overexcite muscles of the body leading to rigidity. Oscillation from high
feedbacks lead to tremors.
• Treatment of Parkinson’s Dx:
• Use of L-Dopa: This drug is able to cross the BBB to relieve symptoms
of the dx. Bcos of its susceptibility to hepatic conversion to dopamine
it is co-administered with carbi dopa.
• L-deprenyl:Inhibits the action of MAO on secreted dopamine in the
brain
• Fetal dopamine cells transplant
• Surgical destruction of the feedback circuitry in BG: surgical lesions in
the Ventrolat and ventroant nuclei of the thalamus can block
feedback from the basal ganglia to cortex has been characterized by
surprising improvement in symptoms.
• Wilson’s Disease: an inherited dx characterized by excessive copper
deposition in tissues. This can damage the putamen. Symptoms of
Parkinson’s dx are also seen in addition to liver failure
• Chorea: abnormal involuntary jerky movts due to lesion in the
caudate and putamen
• Athetosis: Slow rhythmic twisting movt. Caudat and putamen lesions
• Choreoathetosis: Aimless involuntary movts. Combination of above
two.Lesion of caudate and putamen.
• Huntington chorea: inherited progressive neural disorder due to
degeneration of GABAergic neurons in corpus striatum and S.nigra.
Hyponia, chorea and dementia are common.
• Hemiballismus: Violent involuntary abnormal movts on one side of
the body (esp the arm while walking). Aka flinging movt. Occurs due
to degeneration of the sub-thalamic nucleus of Luys.
• Kernicterus: Staining of the BG with bile during episodes of severe
jaundice in neonates. High pitched crying, poor motor development,
rigidity etc.\