Discovery

In 1912, Frederick
Gowland Hopkins
demonstrated that
unknown "accessory
factors" found in milk,
other than carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats were
necessary for growth in
rats.
Frederick G. Hopki ns
(1861 – 1947)
Discovery of
Vitamin A

The "accessory factors"

were termed "fat soluble"
in 1918 and later
"vitamin A"
in 1920.

In 1919, Harry Steenbock

proposed a relationship
between yellow plant
pigments (beta-carotene)
and vitamin A.

Harry Steenbock
(1886 - 1967)
 Discovery of
Vitamin A

In 1931, a Swiss Chemist Paul

Karrer described the chemical
structure of vitamin A.

Paul Karrer
(1889–1971)

Vitamin A was first synthesized in 1947

by two Dutch chemists; David Adriaan van
Dorp and Jozef Ferdinand Arens.
 Discovery

Hopkins received
Nobel Prize for this
discovery in 1929

Frederick G. Hopkins
(1861 – 1947)
Forms of vitamin A
in the human diet
1. Preformed vitamin A (retinol and its
esterified form, retinyl ester)
Preformed vitamin A is found in foods from
animal sources, including dairy products,
fish, and meat (especially liver).
2. Provitamin A carotenoids
The most important provitamin A carotenoid is
beta-carotene; other provitamin A carotenoids
are alpha-carotene and beta-cryptoxanthin.
The body converts these plant pigments into
vitamin A.
Vitamers of Vitamin A

Retinol

Retinal
Vitamers of Vitamin A

Isoprenoid chain

Retinoic acid
beta-ionone ring

ß-carotene
 Non-Vitamin A
Carotenoids

Lycopene
Lycopene is a bright red carotenoid
pigment found in tomatoes, red bell
peppers, watermelons, and papayas.
Non-Vitamin A
Carotenoids

Lutein
Lutein is a xanthophyll and one of 600
known naturally occurring carotenoids.
Lutein is synthesized only by plants and
like other xanthophylls is found in high
quantities in green leafy vegetables such
as spinach, kale and yellow carrots.
 Conversion
of
Carotenoids to retinal
Dietary sources
of
Vitamin A
 RDA
Upper limit
Life stage group Adequate intakes
(AI*) μg/day
μg/day

Infants
500
600

Children
400 900
Males
9–70 years 600 - 900 1700 - 3000

Females
9–70years 600 -700 1700 - 3000

Pregnancy
770 3000

Lactation
1300
3000
 Global Scenario
of
Vitamin A deficiency
Deficiency symptoms
Of
Vitamin A
Children and pregnant
women are mostly affected

The most common

symptom of
vitamin A One of the early signs
deficiency is of xerophthalmia is
xerophthalmia night blindness, or
the inability to see in
low light or darkness
The Photo bleaching
Reaction

All-trans retinal nervous signal

dissociates from along the optic
Opsin nerve to the visual
center of the brain
 Retinoic Acid
in
Gene Transcription
 Discovery
of
Vitamin E
In 1938, Widenbaue first used
wheat germ oil supplement (vitamin E)
on 17 premature newborn infants
suffering from growth failure. 11 out
of the original 17 patients recovered
and were able to resume normal
growth rates.
 Discovery
of
Vitamin E
In 1946 the research team of
Drs. Evan V. Shute and
Wilfred E. Shute, two brothers of
Ontario, Canada, demonstrated that
alpha tocopherol improved impaired
capillary permeability and low platelet
counts in experimental and clinical
thrombocytopenic purpuras.
 Discovery
of
Vitamin E
In 1949, Gerloczy administered
all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetate to prevent and
cure edema.
Since 1960s, supplementation of
infant formulas with vitamin E has
eradicated this vitamin’s deficiency
as a cause for hemolytic anemia.
Naturally occurring forms of Vitamin E
Major Food sources
and
Dietary reference
intake
of Vitamin E

4 mg/day for
newborn to
15 mg/day
for 14 years
and above.
Deficiency symptoms
of
Vitamin E

Deficiency symptoms include peripheral

neuropathy, ataxia, skeletal myopathy,
retinopathy, and impairment of the
immune response.

People with Crohn's disease, cystic

fibrosis, or an inability to secrete
bile are at high risk of Vitamin E
deficiency.
Reactive oxygen species
(ROS)

ROSs are formed as a natural by-product of

the normal metabolism of oxygen in all
aerobic organisms. They have important roles
in cell signaling. However when in excess
due to some reason, they are associated with
cell damage.

s u p e r o x i d e a n i o n O 2− Hydroxyl
Hydrogen radical
peroxide
 Production
of
Peroxyl Radical
Vitamin E as
Antioxidant

Vitamin E acts as a peroxyl

radical scavenger,
preventing the propagation
of free radicals in tissues,
by reacting with them to
form a tocopheryl radical
which will then
be neutralized by
oxidation.
Functions
of
Vitamin E
 Discovery
of
Vitamin K

Vitamin K1 was identified

in 1929 by Danish scientist
Henrik Dam when he
investigated the role
of cholesterol by feeding
chickens a cholesterol-
depleted diet.

Nobel Prize in Medicine

in 1943
Henrik Dam
(1895 – 1976)
 Synthesis
of
Vitamin K

Many different types of bacteria in

our intestines can make vitamin K in
the form of menaquinones

This synthesis of vitamin K in our

digestive tract can contribute to our
vitamin K requirements, but is usually
less than what we consume through
diet.
 Types
of
Vitamin K

phytyl side-chain side-chain of isoprenoid residues

Vitamin K1 Vitamin K2
(phylloquinone) (menaquinone)

Napthoquinone ring
 Vitamers
of
Vitamin K

Vitamin K2
(menaquinone, MK4)

The different subtypes of K2 differ in their

isoprenoid chain length.
The most common vitamin
K2 in animal products.

Vitamin K2 produced in the

colon by bacterial
conversion of K1
 Major Food sources
and
Dietary reference
intake
of Vitamin E

Adequate Intake (AI)

Adult male: 120 micrograms μg/day
adult women: 90 μg/day
Infants :10–20 μg/day
children and adolescents:15–100 μg/day
Functions
of
Vitamin K

Glutamate
-carboxy
glutamate (Gla)
Presently, 16 human proteins with Gla domains
have been discovered, and they play key roles
in the regulation of physiological processes :