Basic Statistics for

Technology Research

Mary Christine B. Luzande

Statistics
• is the mathematical method of
dealing with the collecting,
presenting, analyzing, and utilizing
of numerical facts and figures in
order to draw conclusions and aid in
making decisions in an uncertain
world.
Population
▫ A collection, or set, of individuals or
objects or events whose properties are
to be analyzed.
Sample
▫ A subset of the population.
Data
▫ Information collected from the
population
Branches of Statistical Analysis
1. Descriptive or Deductive Statistics
- the phase of statistics which seek only to describe
and analyze a given group without drawing any
conclusion or inferences about a larger group
- Gather, sort, summarize data from samples

2. Inferential Statistics
- Is a sample is a representative of a population,
important conclusions about the population can
often be inferred from analysis of the sample.
- Compare, test, predict whole group not examine
directly
Activity:
A recent study examined the math and verbal
SAT scores of high school seniors across the
country. Which of the following statements are
descriptive in nature and which are inferential.
Descriptive
1. The mean math SAT score was 492. Descriptive
2. The mean verbal SAT score was 475.
Inferential
3. Students in the Northeast scored higher in
math but lower in verbal. Inferential
4. 80% of all students taking the exam were
headed for college. Descriptive
5. 32% of the students scored above 610 on the
verbal SAT.
Types of Measurement Scales
• Nominal Scale
▫ is simply some placing of data into categories, without
any order or structure.
▫ Simply labels objects
▫ Lowest among the 4 but very powerful on dealing with
qualitative variables
Example: Gender, Subjects

• Ordinal
▫ Numbers are used to place objects in order
▫ But, there is no information regarding the difference
Example: Class Ranking; T-I, T-II, T-III ; Rich, Richer, Richest
Types of Measurement Scales
• Interval
▫ Used when we set out limitations when we conduct
research.
▫ Gap between
▫ But, we can’t defend ratio relationships
Example: Time on a clock with hands.
• Ratio
▫ gives the ultimate–order, interval values, plus
the ability to calculate ratios since a “true zero” can be
defined.
▫ Highest among the 4
Example: Age, height, Ruler measurements
Activity:
1. Type of class organization such as Math Club,
Nominal
English Club, etc. ________
Ratio
2. Age and sleeping habit of senior citizen. ______
3. Instructional materials as program texts and
conventional texts _________
Nominal
4. I am a year younger than my classmate. _______
Interval
5. Number assigned consecutively to the finalists in a
Science Fair _______
Ordinal
6. Monthly salary of randomly selected high school teachers
___________
Interval
7. Level of teachers’ morale described as 5 – Very High, 4 – High, 3-
Ordinal
Average, 2-Low, 1 – Very Low__________
8. Level of principals’ empowerment as 1 – Very much empowered,
2 – Much empowered, 3 – Moderately empowered, 4 – Less
Nominal
empowered, 5 – Not empowered _________
Nominal
9. Curricular offerings of BSU College of Engineering______
10. Family income and student’s self esteem __________
Ratio
Ratio
11. Political party and agenda of senatorial candidates ______
Ordinal/Interval
12. Numerical grades of students in Filipino ____________
13. Soft drinks bought from the AGM store __________
Nominal
14. Your first neighbor’s financial status is more stable than
your neighbor ___________
Ordinal
15. AGM ice cream house serves the most delicious ice cream in
the area ___________
Ordinal
Interval
16. A’s sales rating is higher than B by 25% ____________
Interval
17. Weight of newly born babies in a hospital ___________
18. Leadership style and educational attainment of principals
Ratio
__________
19. Performance as indicator of giving monetary incentives
Ratio
_________
Ordinal/ Interval/ Nominal
20.Philippine currency ___________
Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive statistics deals with summarizing
a distribution of measurement for a group.
These indices needed to describe a
distribution of values are the measures of
central tendency, dispersion, skewness and
kurtosis. Methods for analyzing the
characteristics of the group make it possible
to compute such quantities as means or
averages and standard deviations.
Hypothesis
• The hypothesis is what the researchers' predict the relationship
between two or more variables, but it involves more than a guess.
Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is
then explored through background research. It is only at this
point that researchers begin to develop a testable hypothesis.

• Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the

hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of
the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong.

• Note: If computed value is greater than the tabular (critical), the

decision is to reject H0
Steps in Hypothesis Testing

• Formulate the hypothesis

• Determine the appropriate statistical test
• Specify the level of significance and the sample size
• Specify the region of rejection
• Compute the value of the test
• State the decision
Examples:
• "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a
math exam than students who do not eat breakfast.“

• "Students who experience test anxiety prior to an

English exam will get higher scores than students who
do not experience test anxiety."

• "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be

more likely to make errors on a driving course than
those who do not talk on the phone."
Commonly used Statistical Tools
1. Descriptive (Frequency count, mean, and
standard Deviation)
▫ are the appropriate analyses when the goal of the
research is to present the participants’ responses to
survey items in order to address the research questions.
There are no hypotheses in descriptive statistics.
2. Correlation (Pearson Product-Moment
Correlation Coefficient-r)
▫ If measuring association between 2 variables
▫ Relationship
Commonly used Statistical Tools
3. t-Test
▫ If comparing 2 groups (treatment/control)
▫ between

4. ANOVA
▫ If comparing > 2 groups
▫ difference

5. Regression
▫ If trying to predict an outcome (crystal ball)
▫ effect
Activity:
Statement of the Problem
The general problem of the study is “How to enhance high school students’ thinking skills
resulting to better academic performance in ________________________?”

Specifically the study tried to answer the following questions:

1. How may the high school (HS) students be described in terms of the following variables:
1.1 Age 1.2 Gender 1.3 IQ Level, and
1.4 Minimum number of quality hours used in studying their lessons in ________?
Descriptive
2. How may the HS Students’ level of thinking skills in ______________ be described in
terms of the following parameters :
2.1 Recall, 2.2 Basic 2.3 Critical thinking, and 2.4 Creative thinking?
Descriptive
3. How did the HS students perform in their _________ subject based on their final grades?
Descriptive
4. Is there significant difference in the 4 thinking skills of HS student?
ANOVA
5. Is there significant relationship between HS students’ thinking skills and their performance in
________? Correlation

6. Does HS students’ level of thinking skills significantly affect their academic performance in
_____? Regression
Interpreting Data
1. How may the high school (HS) students be described in terms of the
following variables:
1.1 Age 1.2 Gender 1.3 IQ Level, and
1.4 Minimum number of quality hours used in studying their lessons in __?
Variables Frequency Relative Frequency (%)
12 10 22.2
Age 13 14 31.1
(Years) 14 17 37.8
15 4 8.9
Mean Age = 13.33 SD = 0.93
Male 18 40
Gender Female 27 60
85-89 90 44.5
90-94 4 8.9
IQ Level 95-99 19 42.3
100-104 2 4
Mean Age = 92.64 SD = 5.50
2.5 1 2.2
3 5 11.1
3.5 7 15.6
Studying Time 4 14 31.1
(hours)
4.5 8 17.8
5 7 15.6
5.5 3 6.7
Mean Age = 4.12 SD =0.74
 Interpretation No. 1
Table 1 shows how the 45 HS students were group according to the following variable: age,
gender, IQ and study time.
In terms of age variables, 10 HS students belongs to the youngest age of 12 years old and 4
belongs to the oldest age of 15 years old. Total of 17 students equivalent to 37.8% are 14 years
old representing the majority of the group.
It can be assumed that any HS student is a bit younger or a bit older than 13 years old as per
computed mean age of 13.33 years old. This group is considered homogenous in age as shown
by the computed Standard Deviation of 0.929. It means that members of the group are within
almost the same age level.
Table 1 also depicts the gender profile of the respondents, it shows that there were 18 male and
27 female respondents. In comparison, the number of female students is greater than male
students. This shows that the populace of the HS students are female dominated.
As reflected in the table, data shows that 90 students belongs to the range 85-89 and 4 belongs
to the range 90-94. Having the mean 92.64, it can be assumed that the IQ Level of any HS
students is bit higher or a bit lower to 92. This group is considered heterogeneous having the
standard deviation of 5.50. Which means that the members of the group are within different
level of intelligence.
In relation to studying time of the HS students, the data shows that 1 student study for 2.5
hours and 3 students study for 5.5 hours. Total of 14 students equivalent to 31.1% study for 4
hours representing the majority of the group. Illustration disclosed that the responses garnered
as average mean time of 4.12 and considered a heterogeneous having the standard deviation of
0.74 . Analysis of data reveals that HS students study with different length of time.
2. How may the HS Students’ level of thinking skills in ______________ be
described in terms of the following parameters :
2.1 Recall, 2.2 Basic 2.3 Critical thinking, and 2.4 Creative thinking?
Thinking Skills Frequency Relative Frequency (%)
3 3 6.7
4 16 35.6
Recall 5 12 26.7
6 10 22.2
7 4 8.9
Mean Recall = 4.91 SD = 1.10
3 5 11.1
4 16 35.6
Basic 5 11 24.4
6 12 26.7
7 1 2.2
Mean Basic = 4.73 SD = 1.05
2 8 17.8
3 16 35.6
4 17 37.8
Critical
5 4 8.9

Mean Critical = 3.38 SD = 0.89

2 6 13.3
3 23 51.1
4 12 26.7
Creative
5 4 8.9

Mean Creative = 3.31 SD = 0.82

3. How did the HS students perform in their _________ subject based on
their final grades?

Frequency Relative Frequency

(%)
77.78 8 17.7

79.80 13 28.9

81-82 11 24.4
Final Grade
83-84 11 24.5

85-86 2 4.4

Mean Final Grade = 81.00 SD = 2.22

4. Is there significant difference in the 4 thinking skills of HS student?
Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference in the thinking skills of HS
students.

Groups Count Sum Average Variance

Recall 45 221 4.91 1.22

Basic 45 213 4.73 1.11
Critical 45 152 3.38 0.79
Creative 45 149 3.31 0.67

ANOVA Statistical Results

Sources of Variation SS df MS F p-value F Critical

Between Groups 99.03 3 33.03

Within Groups 166.67 176 0.95 34.08 9.68 2.66

Total 265.75 179

Interpretation No. 4
Table 4 presents the ANOVA statistical results about the
thinking skills of HS students.
It is reflected from the findings that the F value is 34.08
and the F critical is 2.66. Since the F value is higher than F
critical, the decision is to reject the null hypothesis. There is a
significant difference in the thinking skills of HS students
which means that the students have different thinking skills.

F value must be higher than F critical to reject the null hypothesis because it is
not true.
5. Is there significant relationship between HS students’ thinking skills and their
performance in _______________________________?

Final Grade (DV)

Students’ Thinking Skill
(IV)
r p

Recall 0.307 0.041

Basic 0.643 0.000

Critical 0.451 0.002

Creative 0.537 0.000

Interpretation No. 5
Table 5 shows the Pearson correlation between HS students’ thinking
skills and their performance in ___.
As shown, Recall thinking skill have a p-value of 0.41 which means
that there is a significant relationship to students. Creative and Basic
Thinking skills having a p-value of 0.000, both are highly significant
and Critical thinking skill having a p-value of 0.002 also have a highly
significant relationship.
In summary, relationship between HS students’ thinking skills and
their performance in ___ is highly significant . It implies that HS
students’ thinking skills greatly affect their performance in ___.

0.x or 0.0x x is higher than 5 - not significant

0.0x x is 5 or less - significant
0.00x x is 5 or less - highly significant
6. Does HS students’ level of thinking skills significantly
affect their academic performance in _________?
Thank You !!!