UNIT-IV BRAKES & WHEELS

Drum brakes & Disc brakes Construction and

Working and its Types, Front and Rear brake links
layouts. Brake actuation mechanism. Spoked wheel,
cast wheel, Disc wheel & its merits and demerits.
Tyres and tubes Construction & its Types. Steering
geometry
Mohsin Ahmed.A
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
 Braking System
• Brakes are employed to stop or slow down the
speed of vehicle.
• When brake applied to wheel braking force is
created that force oppose the speed of wheel
or rotation of force
 Braking requirement
• The vehicle must stop in smallest distance.
• It must act suddenly in emergency.
• It must have strong braking force.
• It must neither slip nor kid the vehicle And
less heat production.
• It must operate on least effort
 Types of brakes:
• Breaks are divided into seven types as per there uses, functionality, locations etc.
• 1) On the basis of purpose saved.
• a) Main brake.
• b) Parking brake.
• 2) On the basis of location.
• a) Wheel mounted.
• b) Transmission mounted.
• 3) On the basis of drivers ergonomics.
• a) Foot brake.
• b) Hand brake.
• 4) On the basis of actuating.
• a) Mechanical brake.
• b)Hydraulic brake.
• c) Air brake.
• d)Electric brake.
 Types of brakes-contd
• 5) On the basis of construction.
• a) Drum brake.
• b)Disc brake.
• 6) On the basis of application of brake efforts.
• a)Manual brake.
• b)Power brake.
• c)Power assisted.
• 7) On the basis of action of brake shoes.
• a)Internal expanding brake.
• b)External contracting brake.
Drum brake
Typical drum brake parts
Drum Brake
 mechanical Drum brake
• In the mechanical Drum brake system such as
in two-wheeler & auto rickshaw, the brake
shoes are actuated by a cam, which is
attached to the brake linkage & pedal.
• When the brake pedal is pressed, the cam
turns; causing the brake shoes to expand
outwards and rub against the drum.
 mechanical Drum brake
• The friction between the brake linings and the
drum causes the drum to stop rotating,
thereby the wheel to stop.
• When, the brake pedal is released, the
retracting springs bring the brake shoes back
to their original position, causing a gap
between them and the drum and to again spin
it freely.
Drum brake hydraluic
 hydraulic Drum brake
• The hydraulic Drum brake system such as in cars
is a bit superior to mechanical one and the cam is
replaced by the hydraulic wheel cylinder.
• In hydraulic system, instead of cam, the wheel
cylinder’s pistons push the brake shoes outwards.
• The brake shoes are mounted on the anchor plate
or braking plate, which holds the brakes system
parts together and on to the car’s axle.
 hydraulic Drum brake
• When the brake pedal is pressed, the oil in the
brake master cylinder multiplies the hydraulic
force sent to the wheel cylinders; causing its
pistons to push outwards.
• The pistons, in turn, cause the brake shoes to
expand and rub against the drum.
• The friction between the brake linings and the
drum causes the drum to stop rotating,
thereby the wheel to stop.
 Pneumatic assisted Drum brake
• The third type – pneumatic assisted Drum brake
system; actuated by air-pressure, which works on the
same principle of that of mechanical Drum brake
system.
• It is also operated by a bigger size cam or the ‘S’
shaped cam and is popularly known as the “S-Cam”
brake system.
• However, the cam is turned with the help of a
pneumatic piston, which is actuated by high-pressure
compressed air.
• This type of drum brake system is used mostly in the
medium to heavy commercial vehicles.
Advantages of Drum brake system
• Simple design and parts
• Easy & cheaper to manufacture
• Low maintenance cost
• Comparatively longer life
Disadvantages of Drum Brake system
• Low braking force compared to Discs
• Gets faded when applied for prolonged time
• The brake shoe lining made of asbestos is
harmful to humans
• When wet, the braking grip reduces
considerably
• Non-asbestos linings catch moisture, causing
Drum brakes to grab suddenly
 Disc brake
• Disc brake system is widely used on front
wheels in mid-range two wheeler such as –
commuter & sports bikes.
• The Disc brake system is used on the front
wheels of most hatchback cars, entry level
sedans & MUVs; whereas, it is also widely
used on both front & rear wheels of high end
cars in combination with hydraulic / vacuum
brake actuating systems.
 Disc brake
• Disc brake got its name from the circular-
shaped plate or disc or rotor; onto which the
disc brake parts are mounted. A conventional
Disc Brake system consists of a brake disc, two
fiction pads and brake calliper. In the Disc
brake system; the friction pads apply grip on
the external surface of disc to perform braking
 Disc brake
• . The disc brake consists of:
– A circular disc made of – cast iron in cars and steel
in two-wheeler
– A caliper assembly consisting of hydraulic pistons
– A pair of brake pads (one each on the either sides)
– Bleed screw
Disc brake
Disc brake
 Single piston
• In the single piston design such as in two-wheelers, the
brake pads are actuated by a single piston, which is
attached to the brake calliper.
• When the brake lever is pressed, the brake oil pushes
the piston causing the brake pads to contract and rub
against the disc.
• The friction between the brake pads and the disc
causes the disc to stop rotating, thereby the wheel to
stop.
• When, the brake lever is released, the brake pads
retract to their original position, causing a gap between
them and the disc and to again spin it freely.
 Twin Piston
• The twin piston design such as in cars is
almost identical to single piston one, except
for the piston, which are two in numbers.
• In this system, the twin pistons push the brake
pads to apply brake.
• The brake pads are mounted in the calliper,
which holds the brakes system parts together.
 Twin Piston
• When the brake pedal is pressed, the oil in the
brake master cylinder multiplies the hydraulic
force sent to the callipers; causing its piston to
contract.
• The pistons, in turn, cause the brake pads to
contract and rub against the disc.
• The friction between the brake pads and the
disc causes it to stop rotating, thereby the
wheel to stop.
 Twin caliper
• The third type – Twin caliper system; actuated
by two callipers, which works on the same
principle of that of single caliper brake system.
In this design, there are two calipers instead of
one. This type of system is used more
commonly in high speed cars. This system
provides more effective braking.
Twin caliper
Ventilated Discs
• Modern vehicles are fitted
with ventilated discs. When
you apply brakes, the
kinetic energy of the vehicle
is converted to heat due to
the friction between the
brake pads and the disc.
Ventilated discs have
passages or an air vent that
helps pass air through the
disc and provides cooling &
prevents brake fading.
 Advantages of Disc brake system
• No adjustment required
• Better stopping performance
• Fade-free braking in all conditions
• Can check wear without dismantling the unit
• Easy & quick to replacement of pads as
compared to Drum brakes
 Disadvantages of Disc Brake system
• High braking force needed compared to Drum
brake
• Low life of brake pads compared to brake
shoes
• Need separate hand-brake mechanism when
fitted to rear wheels
Mechanically Operated System
Hydraulically Operated System
 Pneumatically Operated System
• Nowadays both low and high pressure air brake systems are fitted
in vehicles, but most light category vehicles use only air to boost
the effort applied by the driver.
• A full compressed-air braking system, is normally used in heavy
vehicles, but is too expensive, bulky and heavy for light vehicles.
Some light trucks in the 3 ton category incorporate a part-
compressed-air system called air/hydraulic (air over hydraulic).
• This air system combined with a hydraulically operated
arrangement reduces the maximum pedal pressure to a
comfortable limit.
• Now a days it is common to use a disc-type brake with a vacuum
servo as standard equipment in many cars.
• This device utilizes manifold depression, or ‘vacuum’ produced by
an engine-driven pump, to assist the driver in the application of the
brake.
Brake Layout
Disc Wheel
Schematic of Disc Wheel
 Spoke Wheels
• The spoke wheels are consisted of a steel rim
and spokes that are made up of both steel and
other metals.
• The spokes are attached to the hub where the
brake drum or the disc brake situates, the
other extreme end of the spoke is screwed
with nipples on the circular steel rim.
• The whole structure makes a sturdy yet
flexible wheel base for the rubber tyre.
Spoke Wheels
 Why Spoke Wheels
• On a motorcycle the tyre is a first contact point
with the tarmac, hence if we start sequencing the
parts come into play while absorbing the shocks,
it is the tyres that comes first, whose rubber
absorbs the shock first then it is the wheel.
• And in case of spoke wheels the flexible property
of it plays important role in absorbing shocks next
to the rubber of the tyres.
• It is then the actual shock absorber takes the
charge and effectively absorbs the shocks.
 alloy wheel
• The alloy wheels are made up of light weight
metal alloys mainly aluminum or magnesium,
the process involved in making the alloy
wheels is majorly casting, where the
extremely hot molten alloy is poured into
ready-made cast of the wheel and after
cooling down the raw wheel is extracted from
the casting mold and then after finishing it is
ready for use.
• For strength and durability there is another method
used for making the alloy wheels and it is "Forging"
which is used for making more durable alloy wheels for
race spec super sportbikes.
• The process starts with a solid metal piece which is
pressed by a hydraulic pressing machine at very high
temperature to make a compressed round piece of that
metal, which is further sent to the CNC machine to cut
the extra metal from that circular piece of metal and
finally there comes a forged alloy wheel which is
several times stronger than the cast alloy wheel used in
our commuter motorcycles.
 Why Alloy Wheels?
• Alloy wheels are made up of light weight metal
therefore the final product is lighter than the spoke
wheel which is made up of steel rim.
• The reduction of weight caused by the alloy wheels
make significant difference in cut throat competition in
racing bikes and they add into the fuel efficiency of the
commuter bikes as well.
• At high to very high speeds the solid alloy wheels
provide great stability as compare to the spoke wheels
which are not that stable at high speeds due to its
flexible nature, which comes from the spokes of the
wheel.
 Rim Sizes & Designations
• To ensure correct fit between a tyre and rim,
all manufacturers ofwheels and tyres comply
with standard dimensions, as recommended
by automotive manufactures.
• The width of the rim is the distance across the
rim flanges, at the bead seat.
• Its diameter is the distanceacross the centre
of the rim from bead seat to bead seat.
• The shape of well-based rims is provided by a
letter code, such as J, K, JJ and KK. The width
of the rim and the diameter is traditionally in
inches. A rim designated 7 JJ by 14 would refer
to a rim measuring 7 inches across the rim
flanges and 14 inches in diameter from bead
seat to bead seat, with the profile conforming
to a JJcode
• The tyre must be an exact fit on the rim, to fulfil a
number of functions.
It ensures that the narrow contact area
between the beads of the tyre and the rim will
seal the air in a tubeless tyre.
It transfers all the forces between the tyre
and the wheel, without slipping or chafing.
It ensures the friction between the tyre and
the rim prevents the tyre turning on the rim.
Cross-Ply Tyres
• Two types of tyre construction are common cross-ply
and radial ply. The cross-ply tyre is the older form. It is
also called a bias-ply or conventional tyre.
• It is constructed of 2 or more plies or layers of textile
casing cords, positioned diagonally from bead to bead.
• The rubber-encased cords run at an angle of between
30 and 38degrees to the centreline, with each cord
wrapped around the beads.
• A latticed criss-crossed structure is formed, with
alternate layers crossing over each other and laid with
the cord angles in opposite directions.
• This provides a strong, stable casing, with
relatively stiff sidewalls.
• However during cornering, stiff sidewalls can
distort the tread and partially lifting it off the
road surface. This reduces the friction between
the road and the tyre. Stiff sidewalls can also
make tyresrun at a high temperature.
• This is because, as the tyre rotates, thecords in
the plies flex over each other, causing friction and
heat.
• A tyre that overheats can wear prematurely.
Radial Ply Tyres
• Radial ply tyres have much more flexible sidewalls due to their
construction. They use 2 or more layers of casing plies, with the
cord loops running radially from bead to bead. The sidewalls are
more flexible because the casing cords do not cross over each
other. However, a belt of 2 or more bracing layers must be placed
under the tread.
• The cords of the bracing layers maybe of fabric, or of steel and are
placed at 12, to 15 degrees to the circumference line.
• This forms triangles where the belt cords cross over the radial
cords.
• The stiff bracing layer links the cord loops together to give fore and
aft stability, when accelerating, or braking and it prevents any
movement of the cords during cornering.
• The cord plies flex and deform only in the area above the road
contact patch.
• There are no heavy plies to distort and flexing
of the thin casing generates little heat, which
is easily dispersed.
• A radial ply tyre runs cooler than a
comparable cross-ply tyre and this increase
tread life.
• A radial tyre has less rolling resistance as it
moves over the road surface.
Tubeless tyres
 Tubeless tyres
• Tubeless tires are pneumatic tires that do not require a
separate butyl rubber inner tube.
• Traditional designs of pneumatic tires required a separate
inner tube which could fail for a number of reasons, such
as: incorrect tire fitment, or friction between the tire wall
and inner tube generating excess heat causing a blowout.
Tubeless tire technology does away with the need for an
inner tube thereby increasing safety.
• In a tubeless tire, the tire, which has an inner lining of
impermeable halobutyl, and the rim of the wheel form an
airtight seal, with the valve being directly mounted on the
rim.
Tube and tubeless tires comparison
• If a tubeless tire gets punctured, air escapes
only through the hole, leading to a gentle
deflation of the tire. Conversely, an inner tube
could potentially burst like a balloon, leading
to a rapid deflation of the tire which could
result in sudden loss of control of the vehicle.
A liquid tire sealant can be added to tubeless
tires to prevent deflation.
 STEERING GEOMETRY
The term "steering geometry" (also known as "front-end geometry")
refers to the angular Relationship between suspension and steering
parts, front wheels, and the road surface. Because alignment deals
with angles and affects steering, the method of describing alignment
measurements is called steering geometry.

There are five steering geometry angles :

Camber
Caster
king pin inclination
Toe in & Toe-out on turns
 Camber:-
 Camber angle is the angle between
the vertical line and centre line of the
tyre when viewed from the front of the
vehicle.
 Camber angle is positive when this is
outward. This happens when wheels
are further apart at top than at bottom.
On the contrary, camber angle is
negative when angle is inward. This
happens when wheels are further apart
at bottom than at top.
 The camber, should not be more than
2 degree, because this causes uneven
or more tyre wear on one side than
on other side.
Caster:-
Caster angle is the
tilt of king pin centre
line towards front of
back from the vertical
line.

It is the angle

between the vertical
line and king pin
centre line in the wheel
plane when looked
from side.
King pin inclination

It is the angle between king pin centre line

and vertical line when seen .
from the front of
the vehicle. d
It is also called steering axle inclination
ort
King pin inclination and caster are use to
improve directional stability in cars.
 This is also used to reduce ee steering eff

• when steering a stationary

it reduces tyre wear.
 This inclination varies from 4 to 8 degr
 TOE IN & TOE OUT
 In automotive engineering, toe also known as tracking.

 This can be contrasted with steer, which is the anti

symmetric angle, i.e. both wheels point to the left orright,
in parallel (roughly).

 Positive toe, or toe in, is the front of the wheel pointingin

towards the centerline of the vehicle

 Negative toe, or toeout, is the front of the wheel pointing

away from the centerline of the vehicle.
 ACKERMANN STEERING GEOMETRY
 Ackermann steering geometry is a geometric arrangement of linkages in the
steering of a car or other vehicle designed to solve the problem of wheels on
the inside and outside of a turn needing to trace out circles of differentradii.

 Modern cars do not use pureAckermann steering partly because it ignores

important dynamic and compliant effects.

 The use of such geometry helps reduce tyre temperatures during high-speed
cornering but compromises performance in low speed maneuvers.

 The intention of Ackermann geometry is to avoid the need for tyre to slip
sideways when following the path around a curve.

 As the rear wheels are fixed, this centre point must be on a line extended from
the rear axle.

 Intersecting the axes of the front wheels on this line as well requires that the
inside front wheel is turned, when steering, through a greater angle than the
outside wheel .
Ackerman – Truck Steering System

Straight ahead

Right turn

Left turn
Car Steering Systems
Rack and pinion

Steering arm

Rack Gearbox

Tire rod
Tire rod
Gearbox

Steering arm
Pitman arm
Idler arm Relay link
Truck Steering Systems

Tire rod
Steering arm

Gearbox
Pitman arm
Drag link