General Characters Of Bacteria

Bacteria are microscopic and least differentiated living organisms, believed to amongst the
first primitive organisms on the earth. They show typical prokaryotic characters and have
resemblance with both plants and animals. They have been placed in a separate class
Schizomycetes under Thallophyta.

Bacteria show considerable variation, but the characters listed below are common to
the most of bacteria.
(1) They are omnipresent, found in all possible habitats one can think of.
(2) st of the bacteria have heterotryphic mode of nutrition, i.e they obtain
their readymade food directly from external agency, and may be parasitic,
sprophytic or symbiotic. Some bacterii are autotrophic : they posses
bacteriaochlorophyli-a photosynthetic pigment.
(3) They are unicellular and morphologically least complex of all the living
organisms.
(4) The cel wall of bacteria is rigid and made up of two types of polymers,
amino acid subunits and saccharide subunits, Cellulose, characteristics of
the cell wall of higher plamts, is absent in bacteria.
(5) A well organiesd nucleus, characteritics of eukaryotes, is lacking and
discrete chromosomes are also absent. The nuclear material is not
surrounded by nuclear membrance.
6) Chlorophyll pigments, if present, are located within involuted
cytoplasmic membrance; well organised plastids are absent.
7) Mitochondria are absent and their function is carried out by complex
localized onfoldings in th ecell membrane, known as mesosomes
8) The rganelles like endoplasdmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus are
absent.
9) Ribosomes are abundant in bacteria cell but they sediment somewhat
more slowly in a centrifuge than do ribosomes of other organisms
10) Binary fission is the most common method of multiplication.
11) True sexual reproduction is absent. However, recombination of genetic
material occurs by conjugation, transformation and transduction.
12) The motile bacteria may posses one or the more flagella, composed of
eight parallel chains of flagellin (a protein) molecules.
13) The gram negative bacteria appendages, known as piili, extruding
through the cell wall. These appengades are composed of a protein,
called fimbrillin.
 Nutritional Types and Bacteria’
The following points highlight the four major nutritional types of bacteria. The
types are: 1. Photoautotrophs 2. Photoheterotrophs 3. Chemoautotrophs 4.
Chemoheterotrophs.
1. Photoautotrophs:
These bacteria capture the energy of sun light and transform it into the
chemical energy. In this process CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates. The
hydrogen donor is water and the process produce free oxygen. Chlorophyll is
present in the cell and its main function is to capture sun light e.g.,
Cyanobacteria. The reaction produces free oxygen. However, in some
bacterial photosynthesis hydrogen donor is a substance other than water,
hence, oxygen is never produced. This is called an oxygenic photosynthesis
and is found in purple sulphur bacteria and green sulphur bacteria. This
photoautotrophic bacteria are anaerobes and have bacteriochlorophyll and
bacteriovirdin pigments respectively. In the process of photosynthesis these
pigments absorb light and reduce carbon dioxide to form organic compounds.
Carbon dioxide is taken from the atmosphere and hydrogen from sources
except water.
Purple Sulphur Bacteria:
These bacteria have the pigment bacteriochlorophyll located on the
intracytoplasmic membrane i.e., thylakoids. These bacteria obtain
energy from sulphur compounds e.g., Chromatiiun. Theopedia rosea,
Thiospirilium.
Green Sulphur Bacteria:
These bacteria used hydrogen sulphide (H2S) as hydrogen donor. The
reaction takes place in the presence of light and pigment termed as
bacteriovirdin or bacteriopheophytin or chlorobium chlorophyll e.g.,
Chlorobium limicola, Chlorobacterium etc. These bacteria take
hydrogen from inorganic sources like sulphides and thiosulphates.
Therefore, these bacteria are also known as photolithographs.
2. Photoheterotrophs (Gr., Photo = light; hetero = (an), other; troph =
nourishment):These bacteria can trap light energy but cannot use
carbon dioxide as their sole caron source. They use organic
compounds from the environment to satisfy their carbon and electron
requirements. They use organic compounds such as carbohydrates,
fatty acids and alcohols as their organic food. The pigment is
bacteriochlorophyll e.g., Purple non-sulphur bacteria (Rhodospirillum,
Rhodomicrobium, Rhodopseudomonas palustris).
3. Chemoautotrophs:These bacteria do not require light (lack the light phase but
have the dark phase of photosynthesis) and pigment for their nutrition. These
bacteria oxidize certain inorganic substances with the help of atmospheric
oxygen. This reaction releases the energy (exothermic) which is used to drive
the synthetic processes of the cell.
The source of carbon is carbon dioxide. In the absence of light synthesis of
organic food from inorganic substances by utilizing chemical energy is also
known as chemosynthesis. The chemoautotrophic bacteria play a very
important role in recycling inorganic nutrients. These bacteria are commonly
named after the structure of the compound which is utilized as the source of
energy viz.
(a) Nitrifying Bacteria:These bacteria obtain energy by oxidizing ammonia into
nitrate. The process occurs in two steps and each step is carried out by a
specialized group of bacteria. In the first step ammonia is oxidized into nitrites
by the bacteria Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus: In the second step, the nitrites are
converted into nitrate. These nitrifying bacteria are present in the soil and are
of considerable economic importance. When these two groups of bacteria
work together, ammonia in the soil is oxidized to nitrate in a process called
nitrification. Energy released upon the oxidation of both ammonia and nitrite
is used for chemosynthesis by these bacteria (to make ATP by oxidative
phosphorylation).
(b) Sulphur Bacteria:
These bacteria obtains energy either by oxidation of elemental sulphur or H2S.
(a) Elemental Sulphur Oxidising Bacteria:
Denitrifying sulphur bacteria e.g., Thiobacillus denitrificans oxidize elemental
sulphur to sulphuric acid and utilize energy produced in this process
2S + 2H2O + 3O2 → 2H2SO4 + 126 kcal.
(b) Sulphide Oxidizing Bacteria:
These bacteria oxidizes H2S and release the sulphur e.g., Beggiatoa.
2H2S 4 – O2 → 2H2O + 2S + 141.8 cal
Sulphuric acid
(c) Iron Bacteria: These bacteria inhabit waters that contain inorganic iron compounds
and oxidize ferrous compounds to ferric forms e.g., Thiobacillus ferroxidans, Ferro
bacillus, Leptothrix.
4FeCo3 + 6H2O + O2 → 4Fe (OH)3 + 4CO2 + 81 kcal.
(d) Hydrogen Bacteria: These bacteria oxidizes hydrogen into water e.g.
Hydrogenomonas.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O + 55 kcal.
4H2 + CO2 → 2H2O + CH4 + Energy
(e) Carbon Bacteria:
These bacteria oxidizes CO into CO2 e.g., Bacillus oligocarbophillous,
Oligotropha carboxydovorans
2CO + O2 → 2CO2 + Energy
4. Chemoheterotrophs:
These bacteria obtain both carbon and energy from organic compounds such
as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. The carbon source as well as the source
of energy are mostly the same for these bacteria. Most of the bacteria are
chemo heterotrophs. Glucose or Monosaccharide [(CH2O)n] + O2 → CO2 + H2O
+ Energy chemo heterotrophs may belong to one of the three main
categories that differ in how they obtain their organic nutrients.
These are:
(i) Parasitic: These bacteria obtain their food from living hosts on which these
grow. Parasites which cause diseases are known as pathogens e.g.,
Clostridium, Mycobacterium etc.
(ii) Saprophytic: These bacteria obtain their food from dead and organic
remains like fruits, vegetables, leaves,meat, faeces, corpses and other non-
living products. The anaerobic breakdown of carbohydrates is fermentation
while that of proteins is called putrefaction, e.g., Putrefying bacteria like
Bacillus mycoides, B. ramosus etc.
(iii) Symbiotic:
These bacteria live in close association with organs of other organisms
(higher plants and animals) in such a way that both the concerned organism
receive mutual benefit from this association. This is called symbiosis for e.g.,
Rhizobium leguminosarum in the root nodules of the leguminous plants.
This bacteria fix free atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds
which are utilized by the plants. In return, the plant provides nutrients and
protection to the bacteria. In the stomach of the cows and goats bacteria
digest cellulose enabling these animals to feed on grass. Our own intestine
contains a number of harmless bacteria e.g., Escherichia coli.
 Reproduction In Bacteria
Every individual has a fixed life span, at completion of which the individual
dies. However, the species survive for periods far greater than the life time
of any individual in it. This is possible with the production of new
individuals by the previous ones before they dies. The production of new
individuals by the existing ones is called reproduction. There are two quite
distinct methods of producing offsprings viz., asexual and sexual methods.
The asexual reproduction involves a single parent and produces offsprings
which are genetically identical to the parent. The sexual reproduction
involves genetic recombination between two parents and so produces
offsprings which differ not only from the parent but also from each other
Bacteria reproduce both asexually and sexually (genetic
recombination).
I. Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction in bacteria occurs by the following methods:
1. Binary fission: This is the most common type of asexual reproduction in
actively growing bacteria and occurs during favorable conditions. On this
basis, bacteria were once called ‘Fission fungi’ (Shizomycetes). In this
process, the cytoplasm and the nucleoid divide equally into two without
mitosis, and the two daughter cells formed are identical to each other;
hence the name binary fission. The whole process of binary fission involves
two steps—Genome replication and Septum formation. Both the events
occur simultaneously and are triggered by a mesosome (if present).
a. Genome/DNA replication:Binary fission begins with DNA replication. DNA
replication starts from an origin of replication, which opens up into a bubble.
The replication bubble separates the two DNA strands, each strand acts as a
template for synthesis of a daughter strand. The DNA replication is
bidirectional, starting from the point of origin and resulting in the formation
of two circular daughter DNA molecules. In each daughter DNA molecule,
one strand is derived from the parental DNA molecule while another strand
is a new one. This is semi-conservative mode of DNA replication.
b. Septum formation/cell division: A peripheral ring of plasma membrane
invaginates and grows centripetally to form a double-membranous septum.
Wall material is deposited between the two membranes of the septum. This
separates the parent cell into two nearly equal daughter cells, each having its
own nucleoid. Under optimal conditions of nutrition, water and temperature,
the process of binary fission is very quick and the division may be completed
in about 20-30 minutes. Thus, in 24 hrs, a very large number of bacteria may
be produced.

2. Zoogloea stage: Under unfavorable conditions, the bacterial cells come to lie
in chains and get surrounded by a lot of mucilage. This is called zoogloea
stage. It is a temporary phase for avoiding dessication.
3. Conidia formation: This condition occurs in mycelial bacteria. The terminal
portions of bacterial filaments cut off rounded structures in chains, called
conidia. These conidia on detachment form new individuals.
4. Gonidia formation: In this case, the bacterial cell produces a number of
flagellated daughter cells within. These daughter cells are also called as
swarmers. The cell wall of parent cell ruptures, releasing gonidia. This is
reported in Rhizobium species.
 5. Cyst formation: This is reported in Azatobacter. The parent cell secretes a
highly protective covering called cyst wall, which can resist unfavorable
conditions. On return of favorable conditions, the cyst wall dissolves and the
bacterium gets released. Thus, cyst formation helps in perennation.
6. Budding: Some bacteria continuously produce protrusions, called buds,
which on detachment form new individuals. Hyphomicrobium vulgare and
Rhodomicrobium vannielia are common examples of budding bacteria.
7. Fragmentation: It occurs in colonial cyanobacteria. After reaching a certain
length, the blue bacterium breaks up into pieces called fragments. Each
fragment is the beginning of a new colony.
8. Hormogonia: It is a characteristic method of reproduction in blue-green
algae. Trichomes of the filamentous genera break up within the sheath into
short sections or segments of one to many, uniform living cells. These short
segments of trichome are called hormogonia or hormogones. The
hormogonia may be separated by:
(a) the formation of heterocysts (Nostoc);
(b) the death of one or more cells (Oscillatoria).
9. Akinetes: These are formed in many cyanobacteria. Akinetes are thick-
walled resistant cells with abundant food reserves, which are frequently
developed singly next to a heterocyst. However, their position is variable
e.g. Anabaena.
10. Hormospores: They are formed at the tip of trichomes or short side-
branches of cyanobacteria e.g. Westiella.
11. Exospores: In certain blue-green bacteria, the spores are successively cut
off at the distal end of the protoplast by transverse divisions. These are
called as exopsores.
12. Endospore formation: When the environmental conditions are adverse,
some Gram +ve bacteria, especially bacilli, and certain blue-green bacteria
(e.g. Stichosiphon), produce thickwalled, resistant spores, called
endospores. Endospores are formed under conditions of nutrient deficiency,
unfavorable temperature, presence of toxic substances, etc. Iron and
manganese stimulate their formation. Flagella, if present, are withdrawn.
Endospores can be formed in middle, sub-terminal or terminal of the
sporangial cell.
 The endospores can be rounded, oval or cylindrical in outline. During
endospore formation, a portion of cytoplasm and a copy of bacterial
chromosome dehydrate and get encased by a very thick wall. The rest of the
cytoplasm and the bacterial cell wall deteriorate, so that the endospore is
released. The thick wall of a typical endospore is distinguishable into four
parts, namely exosporium, spore-coat, cortex and, core wall. Exosporium is a
loose outer covering which is present only in some cases. Spore-coat is hard
and resistant. It is made up of keratin-like disulphide-rich proteins. Cortex is
a thick layer, formed of mucopeptides and carbohydrates. Core wall is rich in
proteins; it is also called inner cortex. The protoplasm of the endospore has
two parts—cytoplasm and nuclear body. The cytoplasm is in a highly
dehydrated state. About 90% of it is made up of proteins. It is also rich in
lipids, calcium and manganese, but is deficient in potassium and
phosphorous. Endospores contain the anti-coagulant Dipicolinic acid, which
makes them highly resistant.
Germination of endospores: The endospore can remain dormant for several
decades, and can tolerate hardest of environments, desert heat and
dehydration, boiling temperature, polar ice, toxic chemicals and even
extreme UV radiations. They germinate only under favorable conditions.
 The protoplast absorbs water and swells up. Dipicolinic acid leaks out, so
that the protoplast becomes active. The swollen protoplast breaks the
spore-covering either at the equator or at one end. It comes out as a new
bacterium, surrounded by the thin core wall. Resistance of endospores:
Endospores are not affected by toxic chemicals and exposure to high (60-
70oC) or low (-100oC) temperatures. Some of the endospores are not killed
even in liquid Helium (-269oC). The endospore of anthrax bacteria can
withstand dry heat of 140oC for 3 hours. This extreme resistance of
endospores is due to
a) Very low water content,
b) anti-coagulant Dipicolinic acid,
c) thick, resistant and impermeable covering,
d) lower rate of metabolism,
e) absence of active enzymes,
f) deficiency of potassium and phosphorous, and
g) increased calcium content.
 Fortunately, most bacteria do not produce endospores, the only exceptions
being Tetanus and Anthrax bacteria. An uncommon type of food poisoning,
called botulism, is caused by the germination of endospores of Clostridium
botulinum inside the food.
II. Sexual reproduction or Genetic recombination in bacteria
Cytological observations and genetic studies indicate that something like
sexual reproduction, involving the fusion of two different cells and a
transfer of hereditary factors, occurs in bacteria, although infrequently. But,
typical sexual reproduction through the agency of gametes is absent in
bacteria. There is no fertilization and meiosis. However, the gene transfer in
bacteria occurs by three methods—Conjugation, Transformation and
Transduction. (1) Conjugation involves transfer of DNA from a donor or
male cell to a recipient or female cell through a specialized sex pilus or
conjugation tube. (2) Transduction involves transfer of bacterial genes from
a donor cell to a recipient cell by a bacteriophage. (3) Transformation
involves the uptake of naked DNA molecules from one bacterium (the
donor cell) by another bacterium (the recipient cell).
 Therefore, conjugation occurs through direct cell-to-cell contact, but
transformation and transduction do not involve any such contact. The
transfer of genetic information is, thus, a oneway transfer, rather than a
reciprocal exchange of genetic material. The phenomenon has been called
‘Parasexuality’ or ‘Genetic Recombination’. However, sexual reproduction
or even conjugation is unknown in cyanobacteria.
The three processes are explained as under:
1. Conjugation: A mechanism resembling sexual reproduction was discovered
by Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum (both from USA) in 1946 in
bacterium E. coli. It was confirmed by Hayes (London) and Wollman (Paris)
in the same bacterium. They found that physical contact was involved in
conjugation between the two conjugants and that DNA from one is
transferred into another through a conjugation tube. Therefore, bacterial
conjugation may be defined as the transfer of genetic material from a
donor cell to a recipient cell through a specialized intercellular connection,
or conjugation tube, that forms between them. The donor and recipient
cells are sometimes referred to as male and female cells, respectively
Mechanism of conjugation The cells that have the capacity to serve as
donors during conjugation are differentiated by the presence of specialized
cell-surface appendages called F pili. The synthesis of these F pili is
controlled by several genes that are carried by small circular molecule of
DNA (about 100kbp) called an F factor (for fertility factor) or also called as
F-plasmid or ‘sex factor’. The F-plasmid is an episome—a plasmid that can
exist in two different states: (i) the autonomous state, in which it replicates
independently of the host chromosome, and (ii) the integrated state, in
which it is covalently inserted into the host chromosome and replicates
along with the host chromosome like any other set of chromosomal genes.
It carries its own origin of replication, the oriV, as well as an origin of
transfer, or oriT. There can only be one copy of the F-plasmid in a given
bacterium, either free or integrated (two immediately before cell division).
The donor bacteria carrying an F factor form the conjugation tube and are
called F-positive or F-plus (denoted as F+). Strains that lack F plasmids are
called F-negative or F-minus (denoted as F-).
 When conjugation is initiated via a mating signal, a relaxase enzyme creates a
nick in one plasmid DNA strand at the origin of transfer, or oriT. The relaxase
may work alone or in a complex of over a dozen proteins, known collectively
as a relaxosome. The transferred, or Tstrand, is unwound from the duplex
plasmid and transferred into the recipient bacterium in a 5'terminus to 3'-
terminus direction. The remaining strand is replicated, either independent of
conjugative action (vegetative replication, beginning at the oriV) or in concert
with conjugation (conjugative replication similar to the rolling circle replication
of lambda phage). Conjugative replication may necessitate a second nick
before successful transfer can occur.
In bacteria, conjugation can occur in several ways. Some important examples
are as follows:
a. Conjugation between F+ male and F- female
E. coli shows two strains, one acting as donor (F+ male) and other as recipient
(F-female). The donor cell contains the F factor in the autonomous (F+ cell)
conjugates with an F- recipient cell, only the F factor is transferred. The
fertility factor is usually accompanied by the presence of pili. They help the
donor cell to get attached to the recipient cell
 In the region of contact, a pilus grows in size and produces a conjugation
tube. F factor replicates. A copy of it gets transferred to the recipient cell,
which also becomes donor. Thus, mixing a population of F+ cells with a
population of F- cells results virtually in all the cells in the new population
becoming F+. In other words, the sex in E. coli can be called infutious.
b. Conjugation between Hfr male and F- female
The F factor can integrate into the host chromosome. An F+ cell carrying an
integrated F factor is called an Hfr (for high-frequency recombination).
Therefore, the F+ male becomes Hfr male. In the integrated state, the F
factor mediates the transfer of a chromosome of the Hfr male cell to a
recipient (F-) cell. Usually only a portion of the Hfr chromosome is
transferred before the cells separate, thus, breaking the chromosome. Only
rarely will an entire Hfr chromosome be transferred. The mechanism of
transfer of DNA from a donor to a recipient cell during conjugation appears
to be the same, whether just the F factor is being transferred, as in F+ by F-
matings, or the chromosome is being transferred, as in Hfr by F- matings.
Transfer is believed to be initiated by an endonucleolytic nick in one strand
at a specific site (the “origin” of transfer) on the F factor
 The 5ʹ end of the nicked strand is then transferred through the conjugation
tube into the recipient cell. Transfer is believed to be coupled to rolling circle
replication with the intact circular strand being replicated in the donor cell
and the displaced strand being replicated in the recipient cell as it is
transferred. Because the origin of transfer is within the integrated F factor,
one portion of the F factor is transferred from an Hfr cell to an F- cell prior to
the sequential transfer of chromosomal genes. The remaining part of the F
factor, however, is the last segment of DNA to be transferred. Thus, in Hfr by
F- matings, the recipient F- cell acquires a complete F factor (thus becoming
an Hfr donor) only in those rare cases when an entire Hfr chromosome, with
its integrated F factor, is transferred.
c. Gene transfer by Fʹ factor
The integration of the F factor into the bacterial chromosome is reversible.
The F factors can be excised from the chromosomes, so that the Hfr cell
reverts to an F+ cell. This excision occurs at about the same frequency as
integration. Correct excision depends upon a break occuring at the same site
on the chromosome as the integration site. In rare cases, however, the break
occurs at a neighbouring site, so that on excision a neighbouring segment of
the host DNA remains attached to the F factor. Such an F factor, containing a
small piece of chromosomal DNA is called an Fʹ factor.
 The origin of an Fʹ factor as analogous to the formation of specific transducing
phage. The cell containing an Fʹ factor is called a primary Fʹ cell. The DNA
integrated into the Fʹ factor can now be transferred from the Fʹ donor cell to
an F- recipient cell with the same frequency (100%) as the F factor from F+
strains to F- strains. The same piece of chromosomal DNA would be
transferred from Hfr cells to F- cells only with a frequency of 1%. Transfer of
the Fʹ factor from a primary Fʹ cell in which it originated to normal F- cell
results in a secondary Fʹ cell. In this cell the segment of the bacterial
chromosome is present twice (i.e. in the diploid state) resulting in the
formation of partial diploids or merozygotes. Recombination of this type
mediated by Fʹ factors is called Sexduction or F-duction. Because of the partial
diploidy, resulting from sexduction, it provides an important method for
determining dominance relationships between alleles and defining genes by
complementation tests in bacteria.
2. Transduction
It was first discovered by N. Zinder and J. Lederberg in 1952, in Salmonella
typhimurium, a mouse typhoid bacterium. Transduction is the transfer of DNA
from a donor cell to a recipient cell by bacteriophages. In most cases only a
small segment of the host (i.e. the donor) DNA is transferred.
 Lytic and lysogenic (temperate) cycles Transduction happens through either
the lytic cycle or the lysogenic cycle. Based on their interactions with the
bacterial cell, bacteriophages are classified into two types: virulent phages,
which always multiply and lyse the host cell; and temperate phages, which
have a choice between two life-styles after infection. They can either (i) enter
the lytic cycle, during which they reproduce and lyse their host cells just like
virulent phages, or alternatively, they can (ii) enter the lysogenic pathway,
during which the phage chromosome is integrated into the bacterial
chromosome, where it can remain dormant for thousands of generations,
and replicate like any other segment of the host chromosome. If the lysogen
is induced (by UV light for example), the phage genome is excised from the
bacterial chromosome and initiates the lytic cycle, which culminates in lysis
of the cell and the release of phage particles. The lytic cycle leads to the
production of new phage particles which are released by lysis of the host. In
both cases the transducing phages are usually defective in some respect; for
example they often lose the ability to lyse host cells.
Types of transduction Two kinds of transduction can be distinguished:
generalized transduction, which can transfer any part of the host DNA; and
specialized transduction, which is restricted to the transfer of specific DNA
segments. In certain cases, bacterial DNA is injected by a phage, but it does
not replicate. This kind of transduction is referred to as abortive
transduction.
a) Generalized transduction: In generalized transduction, a random or nearly
random segment of bacterial DNA is “wrapped up” during phage maturation
in place of, or along with, the phage chromosome in a few “progeny”
particles, called transducing particles. Generalized transducing phages can,
therefore, transport any gene of the donor cell to the recipient cell. Since all
the genes of the donor are represented in a population of these transducing
particles, this type of transduction was named “generalized transduction”. In
some cases, generalized transducing particles contain only bacterial DNA
and, in other cases, they contain both phage and bacterial DNA.
Generalized transduction is mediated by some virulent bacteriophages and
by certain temperate bacteriophages whose chromosomes are not
integrated at specified attachment sites on the host chromosome.
Generalized transducing particles are produced during the lytic cycles of
these phages.
b) Specialized transduction: In specialized transduction, a recombination event,
involving the host chromosome and the phage chromosome, occurs,
producing a phage chromosome containing a segment of bacterial DNA.
Specialized transducing particles, thus, always contain both phage and
bacterial DNA. Specialized transduction is so named because a given virus
transduces only genetic markers of the host that are located in one small
region of the bacterial chromosome.
 Specialized transduction is mediated by the temperate bacteriophages,
whose chromosomes are able to integrate at one, or a few specified
attachment sites on the host chromosome. In its integrated state, the phage
chromosome is called a prophage. The chromosomes of temperate phages of
this type are thus capable of both (i) autonomous replication (replication
independent of the replication of the host chromosome) and (ii) integrated
replication (replication as a segment of the host chromosome). As such, they
are examples of genetic elements called episomes.
3. Transformation
Frederick Griffith (1928), an English bacteriologist, accidently found that the
heat-killed bacteria of virulent strain (type) of Pneumococcus pneumoniae
could transfer characteristics of its strain to the non-virulent strain of living
bacteria. Avery, Macleod and McCarty (1944) observed that it is due to the
transfer of DNA segments from the dead cells to the living cells. They called
the uptake and incorporation of DNA by bacteria as "transformation" and the
normal ability to take up exogenous DNA from the environment as
“competence”.