Fuel Cell

 electrochemical producer of electricity

Was developed by William Robert Grove
converts the chemical energy of a fuel directly into electricity
without any intermediate thermal or mechanical processes like
combustion
generate electricity by reduction and oxidation reactions within the
cell.
In galvanic cells, electrochemical reactions form the basis in which
chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
 A fuel cell of any type is a galvanic cell, as is a battery
PARTS OF A FUEL CELL
Anode
•Negative post of the fuel cell Where fuel reacts or "oxidizes", and releases
electrons.
•Conducts the electrons that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so that
they can be used in an external circuit.
•High electron conductivity
Cathode
•Positive post of the fuel cell
•Conducts electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst
•Recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water.
 Electrolyte
•Proton exchange membrane.
•A chemical compound that conducts ions from one electrode to the
other
•Specially treated material, only conducts positively charged ions.
•Membrane blocks electrons.
Catalyst
•Special material that facilitates reaction of oxygen and hydrogen
•Usually platinum powder very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth.
•Rough & porous maximizes surface area exposed to hydrogen or oxygen
•Usually platinum – can degrade in the presence of impurities (such as
hydrogen sulphide or carbon monoxide)
 Other components
Cogeneration:
The use of waste heat to generate electricity. Harnessing otherwise wasted
heat boosts the efficiency of power-generating systems.
Reformer:
A device that extracts pure hydrogen from hydrocarbons.
Advantages of Fuel Cells
• Zero Emissions: fuel cell vehicle only produce water vapor. Therefore, no
air pollution occurs.
• High efficiency:
Fuel cells convert chemical energy directly into electricity without the
combustion process. As a result, Fuel cells can achieve high efficiencies in
energy conversion. Fuel cells are 2 to 3 times more efficient than combustion
engines.
• High power density:
A high power density allows fuel cells to be relatively compact source of
electric power, beneficial in application with space constraints.
• Quiet operation:
Fuel cells can be used in residential or built-up areas where the noise pollution
can be avoided.
Comparative Energy Transformations
• No recharge:
Fuel cell systems do not require recharging. Rather, fuel cell systems must
be re-fueled, which is faster than charging a battery good transient
response characteristic
•Health Benefits:
Hydrogen fuel cells only produce heat and water – no toxins, particles, or
greenhouse gasses, which means cleaner air for us to breathe.
•Fuel Flexibility
•fuel cells, and each can operate using different fuels including hydrogen,
natural gas, methanol, ethanol, biogas.
•Fuel cell systems suitable for automotive applications operate at low
temperatures (typically less than 212 ºF/100 ºC).
•Remote/unattended operation
Disadvantages of Fuel Cells
hydrogen which is of such benefit environmentally when used in a fuel
cell, is also its greatest liability in that it is difficult to manufacture and
store.
Fuel cells require relatively pure fuel, free of specific contaminants.
Fuel cells suitable for automotive applications typically require the use of
a platinum catalyst to promote the power generation reaction.
Fuel cells must not freeze with water inside.
Fuel cells require complex support and control systems.
Fuel cell systems are heavy
It is very expensive as compared to battery
Unfamiliar technology to the power industry
•Almost no infrastructure and Still at level of development
Membrane issues: Durability , operation , stability
The reaction in a single fuel cell
produces only 0.7 volts
To bring the voltage up to a
reasonable level, many separate
fuel cells must be combined to
form a fuel cell stack
Bipolar plates are used to
connect one fuel cell to another
Large number of cells stacked
together in series to make a
battery called as fuel cell battery
or fuel battery
Classification
Based on the type of Electrolyte
1.Alkaline Fuel cell (AFC)
2.Phosphoric Acid Fuel cell
(PAFC)
3.Polymer Electrolytic Membrane
Fuel Cell (PEMFC) Solid Polymer
Fuel Cell (SPFC) and Proton
Exchange Membrane Fuel cell
(PEMFC)
4. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
(MCFC)
5. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
 Proton Exchange Membrane
PEM fuel cells work with membrane :
A solid polymer electrolyte
 in form of permeable thin sheet.
Made of organic material like polystyrene sulphonic acid, teflon
 small and light
 it works at low temperatures ( 80 degrees C).
Only the protons can go through
the membrane thus, the name
proton exchange membrane
protons move through the electrolyte to the cathode to combine
with oxygen and electrons
A finely divided platinum is deposited on each surface of the
membrane
It serves as an electrochemical catalyst and current collector
This fuel cell operates at 60-80°C
Advantages
Low temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less
warm-up time) and results in less wear on system components,
resulting in better durability.
 cells—deliver high power density
 offer the advantages of low weight and volume, compared to other
fuel cells
use a solid, dry electrolyte, This eliminates liquid handling
use a non-corrosive electrolyte. Pure water operation minimizes
corrosion problems
have relatively simple mechanical design
use stable materials of construction
 Disadvantages

However, it requires platinum to separate the hydrogen's electrons

and protons, adding to system cost.
The platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to CO poisoning,
making it necessary to employ an additional reactor to reduce CO in
the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from an alcohol or
hydrocarbon fuel. This also adds cost.
use an expensive membrane
lower operating efficiency
These cells are the best candidates for cars, for buildings and
smaller application(quick start up & power density) :
PEM cells have supplied power to unmanned blimps called
aerostats and to sonobuoys, which are nautical buoys that generate
and receive sonar signals.
Major automakers like Ford and Volkswagen are also testing
PEM vehicles.

The PEM fuel cell-based power sources are also being developed for
residential (3–7 kW) and building (50 kW) electricity and hot water
application
 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs)
The liquid phosphoric acid serves as the electrolyte
the acid is contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon carbide matrix
two electrodes of porous conducting material (commonly carbon, nickel,
silver) to collect charge.
finely dispersed Platinum catalyst is added to both electrode

•They produce a reasonable amount of heat

•It is one of the most mature cell types
•fuel cell use in small stationary power-generation systems.
•It operates at a higher temperature (150 to 205 ºC) makes it unsuitable for
use in cars.
Advantages
The high operational temperature allows the efficient utilization of heat
 long life in the order of 40,000 hours
tolerant to impurities
They support CO poisoning better than PEMFC
Disadvantages
 Requires platinum catalyst
They have a relatively slow dynamic response
 Relative high cost is an important issue- catalyst
PAFCs are also less powerful than other fuel cells
 typically large and heavy
use a corrosive liquid electrolyte
APPLICATIONS
fuel cell use in small stationary power-generation systems.
PAFCs have been used to power large vehicles such as city buses PAFCs
are more tolerant of impurities
Major manufacturers of PAFC technology include Doosan Fuel Cell
America
. Inc. (formerly ClearEdge Power & UTC Power) and Fuji Electric
s
 India's DRDO has developed PAFC for air independent propulsion for
integration their Kalvari class submarines
 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs)
This is one of the oldest designs.
AFCs are high-performance fuel cells
 It uses 40% aqueous KOH as electrolyte
electrolyte that conducts hydroxyl (OH–) ions from the cathode to the
anode. 1/ 2O2  2 H 2O  2e   2OH 

The operating temperature: 60ºC - 120ºC

The AFC is very susceptible to contamination, so it requires pure
hydrogen and oxygen.
can use a variety of non-precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and
cathode
The presence of carbon dioxide in fuel results in the formation of
potassium carbonate which increases resistance of cell
Advantages:
 have fast startup times (50% rated power at ambient
temperature)
have high efficiency
 need little or no expensive platinum catalyst
 have relative ease of operation
have low weight and volume
Min corrosion as alkaline electrolyte
Disadvantage

easily poisoned by carbon dioxide (CO2).

making it necessary to purify both the hydrogen and oxygen used in
the cell. This purification process is costly.
 Susceptibility to poisoning also affects the cell's short lifetime -
8000 hours
 Relatively low heat production
Very expensive and corrosive electrolyte so unlikely to be
commercialized
It has been used in the U.S. space program since the 1960s.
Formerly it is also called as Bacon fuel cell after its British inventor
It was originally used by NASA on space missions for Apollo program
They were used in Apollo spacecraft to provide both electricity and
drinking water
The world's first Fuel Cell Ship HYDRA used an AFC system with 5 kW
net output
 fuel cells is used in transportations (i.e. in fleet vehicles and boats in
Europe) and space shuttles.
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs)
The electrolyte is composed of a molten mixture of ceramic lithium
matrix and molten carbonates of alkali metals (Na, K or Li)
mixture is retained within a ceramic support matrix of lithium aluminate.
It has the potential to be fuelled with coal- derived fuel gases, methane or
natural gas.
These fuel cells can work at up to 60% efficiency
 They operate at high temperature(650ºC)
nonprecious metals can be used as catalysts
don't require an external reformer to convert more energy-dense
fuels to hydrogen.
Due to the high temperatures at which they operate, these fuels are
converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell itself by a process called
internal reforming, which also reduces cost.
 Advantages
high temperature implies a high quality heat production
 They are not sensitive to CO poisoning.
Because of high temperature it does not need any catalyst
 They have a relatively low cost. (don't require an external reformer and
catalyst)
more resistant to impurities than other fuel cell
 fuel efficiencies can be as high as 85%
support spontaneous internal reforming
 have fast reaction kinetics (react quickly)
Less expensive than SOFC because it doesn’t require as rare of materials
Disadvantages

Extremely slow startup: require a considerable warm-up period

Very slow dynamic response
the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate component breakdown and
corrosion
 Durability is less
 component breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life
low sulfur tolerance
Applications
Molten carbonate fuel cells are currently being developed for natural gas
and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military
applications
These fuel cells are also best suited for large stationary power generators.
they also generate steam that can be used to generate more power.
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs)
It uses hard, solid ceramic compound of metal (Ca,Zr) oxides as
electrolyte.
H 2  O 2  H 2O  2e 
Operating temperature
1/ 2O2  2e  is
about
O 2 600-1000°C
The anode is made of porous nickel and cathode employs metal oxide like
indium oxide
Solid electrolytes cannot leak, but they can crack.
oxide ions rather than hydrogen ions travel through the electrolyte, the
fuel cells can in principle be used to oxidize any gaseous fuel.
the technology is not yet mature
Advantages

support spontaneous internal reforming of hydrocarbon fuels

has solid electrolyte so the membrane cannot dry out as with PAFCs or
liquid cannot leak out as with AFCs
generate high-grade waste heat
 have fast reaction kinetics
 have very high efficiency
can be fabricated in a variety of self-supporting shapes and configurations
• do not need noble metal catalysts
Disadvantages
Few materials can operate at high temperatures and re-main solid over
long periods of time(require rare material )
 do not yet have practical fabrication processes
incoming air has to preheated
 be used for generating electricity and heat in industry
fuel cells are best suited for large-scale stationary power generators that
.
could provide electricity for factories or towns.
The steam produced by the fuel cell can be channeled into turbines to
generate more electricity.
 Fuel cell technologies

PEMFC AFC PAFC MCFC SOFC

•
H2 H2, CO, CH4, H2, CO, CH4,
Fuel H2 H2
HC HC
Solid
Potassium Phosphoric Lithium and Solid oxide
polymer
Electrolyte hydroxide acid (H3PO4 potassium (yttria,
(usually
(KOH) solution) carbonate zirconia)
Nafion)
Charge
carried in H+ OH- H+ O2-
electrolyte
Operational
temperature
(oC) 50 – 100 60 - 120 175 – 200 650 1000
Efficiency (%) 35 – 60 35 – 55 35 – 45 45 – 55 50 – 60
Non -
Catalyst Platinum Platinum Nickel Perovskite
• Platinum
 The lightest, most explosive and most abundant element on Earth

 These characteristics make it useful for lifting and as an explosive

i.e. the Hydrogen Bomb

 When hydrogen is used as an energy source, the only byproducts

are water and heat

 Hydrogen is a renewable energy source

 Hydrogen is not a fuel…it is a way of storing and transporting

energy

 Hydrogen can produce up to 3x as much energy as natural gas

 Hydrogen is odorless: Detected through flame detector

 Hard to store

 sustainable: As long as energy is able to be produced from

hydrogen, the hydrogen is very near an inexhaustible source

 Electrolysis of water

 Hydrogen is not readily available

 Hydrogen is normally a gas : hard to handle

 More dangerous than other substances

 Why hydrogen energy?

Hydrogen has a high Can be generated from water

energy density using renewable energy

142 MJ per
kg of H2!

Used to power
fuel cell
vehicles

No carbon-
containing
products
 Hydrogen Production
 H is one of most common chemicals on earth and can be

extracted from multiple sources

 diversity of sources makes hydrogen a promising energy

carrier and enables hydrogen production almost anywhere

in the world.

 In order to use hydrogen energy, it must first be made

 Issues regarding hydrogen production involve cost, emission

free methods, and renewable technologies

 Methods of Hydrogen Production

 Fossil Fuel Based Hydrogen Production

 Steam Reforming of Natural Gas
 Water-Based Hydrogen Production: Electrolysis,
Photoelectrolysis, Photobiological
 Other Methods of Hydrogen Generation: Biomass
Gasification and Pyrolysis
 Steam Reforming
 This is an endothermic catalytic reaction, where an organic

molecule is mixed with water vapor and a catalyser to obtain

hydrogen, assisted by thermal energy.

 converts methane (and other hydrocarbons in natural gas) into

hydrogen and carbon monoxide by reaction with steam over a

nickel catalyst


Steam reforming of natural gas involves 2 steps:
1st Step:
Expose natural gas to high temperature steam at temperatures between
750-1000 °C and a pressure around 25 bar.
2nd Step:
Expose carbon monoxide to high temperature steam in which CO
converted into CO2 and H2 with a catalytic water-gas shift reaction :
The resulting hydrogen and carbon dioxide is sequestered
and stored in tanks
75 % to 80 % efficient
the cheapest
 the most common industrial production process.
 Partial Oxidation(POX)
produces hydrogen by burning methane in air.
the combustion of hydrocarbons with a reduced amount of oxygen.
The reaction in this case is exothermic
Both steam reforming and partial oxidation produce a “synthesis gas” or
“syn gas,”
Simple system
Low efficiency than SMR
POX is compact and has faster dynamic response than MSR
 Issues with Natural Gas in Hydrogen Production

 Not emission free

 The cost of natural gas has tripled in recent years
 Will have to rely on imports to supply the natural gas
 Natural gas is not renewable
 GASIFICATION.
decarbonization of heavy hydrocarbons
 a process in which coal or biomass is converted into gaseous
components by applying heat under pressure and in the presence of
air/oxygen and steam
It is an endothermic reaction
fixed bed, fluidized bed or entrained flow
syn gas, is then reacted with steam to produce a gas stream
with an increased hydrogen concentration
Coal is the fossil fuel with the lowest ratio hydrogen-
carbon, so it produces more CO2 per mole of H2.
Schematic of
steam reforming
and coal gasification
 CO2 capture and storage:
To achieve a sustainable hydrogen production, CO2 has to be
captured and stored.
 The conventional technology is based on amine absorption, but
there are others being developed, such as selective membranes or
sorbents.
Once captured, CO2 must be deposited permanently. It can be
done ingeological formations like empty oil and gas fields or in
aquifers.
 THERMAL DECOMPOSITION (CRACKING).

a thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons

separate hydrogen and carbon by heating without oxygen at very
high temperatures
condensed phase rich in carbon, which can be captured to avoid its
release into the environment.
 ELECTROLYSIS
water is separated into oxygen and hydrogen when an electric
current passes through it
The device used in this process is called electrolyser
Produces very pure hydrogen
Very expensive, relative to steam reformation due to the electrical
input
Alkaline electrolysers use an aqueous KOH solution (caustic) as an electrolyte
that usually circulates
through the electrolytic cells. Alkaline electrolysers are suited for stationary
applications and are
available at operating pressures up to 25 bar. Alkaline electrolysis is a mature
technology, with a
significant operating record in industrial applications, that allows remote
operation
PEM electrolysers
require no liquid electrolyte, which simplifies the design significantly. The
electrolyte is an acidic
polymer membrane. PEM electrolysers can potentially be designed for
operating pressures up to
several hundred bar, and are suited for both stationary and mobile
applications. The main drawback
of this technology is the limited lifetime of the membranes. The major
advantages of PEM over
alkaline electrolysers are the higher turndown ratio5, the increased safety due
to the absence of
KOH electrolytes, a more compact design due to higher densities, and higher
operating pressures
used in the electronics, pharmaceutical, and food industries
The electricity for the electrolysis needs to be produced and the
water needs to be purified (soft de-ionized water is needed).
when coupled with a renewable energy source (for the electrical
input) electrolysis can provide a completely clean and renewable
source of energy- wind ,solar, nuclear
electrolysers have been used in industry for a long time, being a
proved technology available in a commercial scale
 efficiencies around 70-80%
 THERMOLYSIS

 a chemical reaction in which water is separated into oxygen and

hydrogen when heated.
it needs very high temperatures above 2500-3000 K
Heat from a nuclear reactor, Solar concentrator can be used
Solar as a renewable energy source, focusing on solar thermal
due to its great potential in hydrogen production
Heat from a nuclear reactor can be used to improve the
efficiency of water electrolysis to produce hydrogen
 PHOTO-ELECTROLYSIS (PHOTOLYSIS).
Solar energy can be used for electrolysis through photovoltaic
systems that produce electricity.
A photoelectrolyzer is placed in water and, when exposed to
sunlight, begins to generate hydrogen
The photovoltaics and the semiconductor power the electrolyzer
by generating electricity from the sunlight
potentially a clean and renewable source of hydrogen fuel for the
hydrogen economy
 Photo-biological Production (Biophotolysis)

a two-step hydrogen production process.

First step photosynthesis, is followed by hydrogen production catalysed
by hydrogenases in green algae or cyanobacteria.
Certain microbes, such as green algae and cyanobacteria, produce
hydrogen by splitting water in the presence of sunlight as a byproduct of
their natural metabolic processes.
H2 Production by algae
 Thermochemical
water splitting is the conversion of water into hydrogen and
oxygen by a series of thermally driven chemical reactions
The cycles are based on metal oxide redox systems,
The first step, endothermic, consists of separating metal oxide
using solar thermal energy.
The second step, exothermic, consists of the hydrolysis of the
metal obtained before to form again the metal oxide and produce
hydrogen
the low-efficiency issue
by reducing the number of steps, higher efficiency rates
are obtained
nuclear heat source should be discarded in this case, as
temperatures above 1000 °C are not recommended
Chemical Hydrogen Production