Sect. 4.

5: Cayley-Klein Parameters
• 3 independent quantities are needed to specify a rigid
body orientation. Most often, we choose them to be the
Euler Angles: ,θ,ψ.
• Sometimes, it’s convenient to use variable sets which
contain more than the minimum number of 3, even
though these can’t be used as indep generalized coords.
• One set of 4 parameters, due to Klein (& Cayley) &
originally Euler  Cayley-Klein Parameters is often
convenient.
– These are very useful in theoretical physics.
– Also much easier to deal with than Euler Angles when
obtaining numerical solutions to rigid body problems!
• Cayley-Klein Parameters: 4 complex variables
denoted as: α,β,γ,δ. Constraints: β = - γ*, δ = α*
• DEFINE general transformation matrix A in terms of
these as: *  complex conjugate

• Of course, this is the SAME A that we wrote in terms

of Euler Angles!  There MUST be a connection
between α,β,γ,δ & angles ,θ,ψ.
• A in this form looks complex. But A is real!
• PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION of α,β,γ,δ?
• To see that A is real, define the real quantities e0, e1,
e2, e3 ( Euler parameters) as:
α  e0 +i e3 β  e2 +i e1
Also, since β = - γ* & δ = α*
γ  -e2 +i e1 δ  e0 - i e3
• In terms of these real parameters, A looks like:

• Clearly, A in this form is real.

• Orthogonality of aij  (e0)2 + (e1)2 + (e2)2 + (e3)2 = 1
• PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION of e0, e1, e2, e3?
 Sect. 4.6: Euler’s Theorem
• Now have the complete math formalism to describe the
motion of any rigid body.
– At any time t, the body orientation with respect to some
external set of axes can be specified by an orthogonal
transformation A.
– Can express elements of A (aij) with a convenient
choice of parameters: Euler angles: ,θ,ψ.
Cayley-Klein Parameters: α,β,γ,δ.
Euler Parameters: e0,e1,e2,e3. Each is time dependent.
 As time progresses, the orientation of the body changes:
A = A(t)
Time dependence is obtained by solving Lagrange’s Eqtns!
• Assume initial conditions so that body axes are the
same as the external axes at t = 0.
Initial condition: A(0) = 1
• Later as orientation changes, A = A(t)  1
• Physics: Motion must be continuous

 The transformation matrix A must evolve

continuously from the identity transformation 1.

 Euler’s Theorem: The general displacement of a

rigid body with one point fixed is a rotation about
some axis. Proof: As we proceed.
• Euler’s Theorem: The general displacement of a rigid
body with one point fixed is a rotation about some axis.
• Physical meaning: For every such rotation it is always
possible to find an axis through the fixed point, oriented at
particular polar angles θ, such that a rotation about this axis
by a particular angle ψ duplicates the rotation.
 3 parameters θ,,ψ characterize the rotation &
these ARE the Euler angles
• The fixed point is often (but not necessarily!) the CM of the body.
• Take the fixed point as origin of body axes
 “Displacement” of body involves no translation of
body axes, but only a change in ORIENTATION
• Euler’s Theorem restated: The body axes at time t
can be obtained by a SINGLE rotation (about an
appropriate axis, to be determined!) of the initial axes.
• In other words: The OPERATION implied by the
general orthogonal transformation A describing the
motion of a rigid body IS A ROTATION!
• Given the Euler angles θ,,ψ, the rotation axis is to
be determined!
• 1st Characteristic of a rotation: The magnitudes of
all vectors are unchanged on rotation!
– This results automatically from the orthogonality
conditions on the aij!
• 2nd Characteristic of a rotation: The direction of the
rotation axis is unchanged on rotation.
 Any vector lying on this axis has the same components in
both the initial & the final axis systems!
 If we can show that there exists a vector R having the same
components in both systems, will have proven Euler’s
Theorem. This proof follows:
• In general, for vector R, under a rotation
characterized by A: R = AR
• If R = rotation axis, then R = R
• For generality, write R = λR. To prove Euler’s
theorem, look for solutions where λ = +1
• Combining gives: (A - λ1)R = 0
• To prove Euler’s theorem, we need to solve:
(A - λ1)R = 0 (1)
 The Eigenvalue Problem
Values of λ which satisfy (1)  Eigenvalues
In general, λ might be real or complex
Vectors R which satisfy (1)  Eigenvectors
Eigenvalue  German for characteristic value.

• Euler’s theorem restated: The real, orthogonal

matrix specifying the physical motion of a rigid body
with one fixed point always has the eigenvalue
λ=+1
• Solve the eigenvalue problem:
(A - λ1)R = 0 (1)
• Note that:
X a11 a12 a13 100
R Y A  a21 a22 a23 1  010
Z a31 a32 a33 001
 (1) becomes 3 simultaneous, homogeneous, linear algebraic
eqtns for the components X, Y, Z
(a11 - λ)X + a12Y + a13Z = 0
a21X + (a22 - λ)Y + a23Z = 0 (1)
a31X + a32Y + (a33 - λ) Z = 0
Solutions to (1): (in general 3) eigenvalues λ. For each λ, ratios
of components of corresponding eigenvector R. Physics: Only
the direction of R, not the magnitude, can be determined.
• Eigenvalue problem:
(A - λ1)R = 0 (1)
Or: (a11 - λ)X + a12Y + a13Z = 0
a21X + (a22 - λ)Y + a23Z = 0 (1)
a31X + a32Y + (a33 - λ) Z = 0
Has a solution only when the determinant of the coefficients of
X,Y, & Z vanishes.
 Solution requires: |A - λ1| = 0 or:
(a11 - λ) a12 a13
a21 (a22 - λ) a23 = 0 (2)
a31 a32 (a33 - λ)
(2)  Characteristic or secular eqtn of matrix A.
Euler’s theorem restated again: For real, orthogonal matrices
A, the secular eqtn must have the root λ = +1
• Eigenvalue problem, (slightly) alternate formulation:
(A - λ1)R = 0 (1)
 Solution requires: |A - λ1| =0 (2)
• Notation: 3 eigenvalues  λk (k =1,2,3)
3 eigenvectors R  Xk (k =1,2,3)
Each eigenvector Xk has 3 components labeled as Xik
(Change of notation from X,Y,Z!)
1st subscript (i) labels the component
2nd subscript (k) labels the eigenvector to
which the component belongs.
 Eqtn resulting from (1) for kth eigenvalue (summation convention not
used!):

∑jaijXjk = λkXik (3)

• Eigenvalue problem: ∑jaijXjk = λkXik (3)
• Rewrite using δj,k notation:
 ∑jaijXjk = ∑jXij δj,kλk (3)
(3): Both sides have the form of matrix products: Define the
(diagonal) eigenvalue matrix:
λ1 0 0
λ  0 λ2 0  (3) becomes: AX = Xλ (4)
0 0 λ3
• Multiply (4) from left by X-1: X-1AX = λ (5)
(5): A similarity transformation operating on A.
 Can diagonalize A by performing a suitable similarity
transformation. If an appropriate X can be found, the
elements of diagonal A  are the eigenvalues sought & the X’s
which do this are the eigenvectors.
• A proof of Euler’s Theorem in form: “For real, orthogonal
matrices A, the secular eqtn must have the root λ = +1”
• Diagonalize A & find eigenvalue λ = +1.
• Another proof: Use property of transpose Ã. Recall for
orthogonal matrices, the reciprocal is equal to the transpose:
A-1 = Ã
• Consider the expression (A - 1)Ã = 1 - Ã.
• Take the determinant of both sides: |A - 1||Ã| = |1 - Ã|
• To describe rigid body motion, A(t) must correspond to a
proper rotation  |A| = |Ã| =1
 |A - 1| = |1 - Ã|. Determinant of a matrix = determinant of its
transpose:  |A - 1| = |1 - A|
 Determinant of matrix A - 1 = determinant of matrix
1 - A = -(A - 1)
 |A - 1| = |1 - A| = -|A -1|  |A -1| = 0. Compare to
secular eqtn |A - λ1| = 0  A must always have at
least one eigenvalue λ = + 1.
 Euler’s Theorem is proven!
• What about the other 2 eigenvalues?
• Determinant of any matrix is unaffected by similarity
transformation. We had:
AX = Xλ (4) and X-1AX = λ (5)
Take determinant of (5), noting that |A| = 1 (previous
result) & that determinant is invariant under similarity
transformation:
 |A| = 1 = |λ| = λ1λ2λ3
• Determinant of A = product of its 3 eigenvalues:
|A| = 1 = λ1λ2λ3
• Euler’s theorem: At least one eigenvalue is 1
(say λ3 = 1)  λ1λ2 = 1
• A is real  If λ is an eigenvalue, then it’s complex
conjugate λ* is also an eigenvalue.
 If the eigenvalue λ1 is complex, must have λ2 = λ1*.
• If the eigenvalue λ1 is complex, the corresponding
eigenvector R1 is also complex.
– For complex vectors R, the square of the
magnitude is given by RR*
• The square of the magnitude is invariant under a real
orthogonal transformation A
 RR* = (AR)AR* = RAAR* = RR* (1)

• If R is a complex eigenvector corresponding to a

complex eigenvalue λ, the first part of (1) becomes:
RR* = λλ* RR* (2)
(1) & (2) together  λλ* =1 Conclusion: All
eigenvalues of a general orthogonal
transformation A have unit magnitude.
Summary: The 3 eigenvalues λ1, λ2, λ3 of an orthogonal
transformation matrix A must satisfy:
a. λ1λ2λ3 = 1
b. Euler’s Theorem  One of them (say λ3) = 1
c. λ1λ2 = 1
d. λiλi* =1 (i =1,2,3)
 The λ’s have 3 possible distributions:
1. All are = +1.  A = 1 (trivial)
2. One, say λ3 = 1 & the other 2, λ1 = λ2 = -1
 A = rotation by π about some axis
3. One, say λ3 = 1 & the other 2, λ1 & λ2 are
complex conjugates of each other.
• Consider case 3. where λ3 = 1 & λ2 = λ1*:
Still must have λ1λ2 = 1
 λ1 & λ2 must be of the form
λ1 = eiΦ λ2 = e-iΦ
• Direction cosines of axis of rotation (eigenvector R
for eigenvalue λ = 1) are obtained by going back to
eigenvalue eqtns:
(a11 - λ)X + a12Y + a13Z = 0
a21X + (a22 - λ)Y + a23Z = 0 (1)
a31X + a32Y + (a33 - λ) Z = 0

setting λ = 1 & solving for X, Y, Z.

• Can also get angle of rotation for eigenvalue λ = 1.
Do this by a similarity transformation BAB-1  A
to transform A into a system of coords where z axis is
axis of rotation. A  a rotation about the z axis
through angle Φ  Can easily write:
cosΦ sinΦ 0
A = -sinΦ cosΦ 0
0 0 1
Trace of A = TrA = aii = 1 + 2 cosΦ
• The trace of a matrix is invariant under a similarity
transformation  TrA = aii = 1 + 2 cosΦ
 TrA = aii = 1 + 2 cosΦ
• Again using the same property, this
 TrA = Trλ = 1 + 2 cosΦ (1)
• Now, the rotation angle Φ can clearly be seen to be
identical to the phase angle of the complex
eigenvalues: λ1 = eiΦ, λ2 = e-iΦ , λ3 = 1
 TrA = Trλ = 1 + eiΦ + e-iΦ (2)
(1) & (2) are the same, since eiΦ + e-iΦ  2 cosΦ
• Clearly, cases when eigenvalues are all real, are
special cases of complex eigenvalues (special choices
for rotation angle Φ).
Φ = 0  All λ’s =1  A = 1 (as already noted)
Φ = π  λ1 = λ2 = -1 (as already noted)
• Note: The prescription for getting the rotation axis
direction R & for rotation angle Φ are not unique &
unambiguous.
– If R is eigenvector, so is -R
 Sense of direction of rotation axis is not exactly specified.
Could be direction of R or -R
– Also, if replace Φ by -Φ all of the formalism is unchanged.
(e.g. -Φ satisfies TrA = 1 + 2 cosΦ)
 The sense of direction of the rotation angle is not exactly
specified. Could be Φ or - Φ.
– Can go even further & say that the eigenvalue eqtn does
not uniquely specify the orthogonal transformation
matrix A . e.g. can show that the inverse or transpose A-1 =
à has the same eigenvalues & eigenvectors as A.
• Euler’s Theorem: The general displacement of a rigid
body with one point fixed is a rotation about some axis.
• Corollary  Chasles’ Theorem: The most general
displacement of a rigid body is a rotation about some
axis plus a translation.
– Removing the constraint of the one fixed point introduces 3
more (translational) degrees of freedom (3 more
generalized coords, giving a total of 6, as discussed at
beginning of the chapter).
– A stronger form (footnote, p 161): It is always possible to
choose the origin of the body set of coordinates so that
the translational motion is in the same direction as the
rotation axis  Screw motion.
Useful in crystallography!