Topic 7

TOPIC 7
Basic Statistics,
Item Analysis
and Data
Interpretation
Learning Outcome
 Analyze raw score by using score scaling, frequency table,

cumulative score, graphical representation and percentile
 Explain basic concepts of statistics; mean, mod, median, standard
deviation and standard score
 Calculate mean, mod and median from raw data set
 Calculate standard deviation from raw data set
 Calculate the standard score from the raw data set
 Explain the concept of normal graph
 Interpret data by frequency, graph, percentile rank, mean, mod,
median, standard deviation and standard score
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Learning Outcome (cont…)
 Describe the purpose of reporting data and reporting methods

 Explain the concept of an item analysis, difficulty index and item
discrimination index as well as distractor analysis
 Calculate difficulty index and item discrimination index
 Use itemized of difficulty and discrimination indexes as well as
distractor analysis to determine item quality
 Describe the concept of item bank, the advantages of having item
bank and constraints in the construction of item bank

Basic Statistics
 How to process raw scores using scoring, frequency

tables, graphs like ogive, histogram and percentile.
 The concept of central tendency measurements and
the calculation : mean, mod and median.
 How to calculate and understand the standard
deviation concept for a data set; to understand the
concept of normal graphs and standard scores.

Sorting Scores
Scores for 20 students of Year 4 Melor for Math test:
90 70 60 40 70
60 20 80 30 50
30 50 50 60 60
60 70 40 70 80

Sorting Scores (cont…)
Ascending order (small to big)
20, 30, 30, 40, 40, 50, 50, 50, 60, 60, 60, 60, 60, 70,
70, 70, 70, 80, 80, 90
Descending order (big to small)
90, 80, 80, 70, 70, 70, 70, 60, 60, 60, 60, 60, 50, 50,
50, 40, 40, 30, 30, 20

Frequency Table
 Frequency refers to the number of students who get a

certain score.

Accumulated Score
 The score distribution can also be processed by collecting scores into a

score set called class interval.

Graph Representation: Histogram

Graph Representation: Polygon

Graphic Representation: Ogive

Graphic Representation: Ogive
(cont…)
 The frequency distribution can be represented by a graph called a

piled frequency or ogive.
 The information obtained from the ogive – the estimation of the
number of pupils who scores less than a certain score and an
approximate pass score if given the number of failed pupils.
 Ogive can also be used to estimate percentile point and percentile
rank.
 Percentile point refers to a score located at or below the percentage
specified in a distribution.
 Percentile rank refers to the percentage of scores that are at or
below a score.

Central Tendency Measurement:
Mode
 Mode refers to the most

frequent scores of data set.
 For example, based on the
data set, the most frequent
score is 30, which is three
times. Therefore, the mode of
the set of scores is 30.

Median
 Median refers to the middle score when the number of scores is odd;
or the average of both scores in the middle when the number of scores
is even. To determine the median, the scores should be arranged first
in ascending or descending order.

Mean
 For a set of non-accumulated scores, the mean can be calculated by

summing all scores and dividing by the number of scores.

Centralized Tendency Size: Mean,
Mode and Median (cont...)
 Mode is rarely used in ranking student achievement in assessments.

 Median is usually used to replace mean when there is an extreme
score.
 For example, for the following set of student scores: 10, 10, 20, 20,
100. Score 100 is the last score because the value is much different
compared to other scores. Min for the set of scores is 32 and the
median is 20.
 In this case, it is more appropriate to use the median value to describe
the overall student achievement as compared to the mean value
because only one out of five students have scores more than 20.

Mean Count for Cumulative Score
 The formula for the mean calculation of the cumulative

score is as follows:

Mean Count for Cumulative Score
(cont…)

Standard Deviation
 Standard deviation is the measure associated with the distribution of a

set of scores.
 Calculation of standard deviation of non-accumulating score:

Standard Deviation (cont…)
 For the cumulative score, the formula for calculating the standard
deviation is almost the same as the formula for the non-
accumulated score. The difference is only in the use of midpoint
scores for each class interval.
 Formula for standard deviation of accumulated score:

Standard Deviation (cont…)
 The standard deviation value shows how the score disperse, that is,
the extent of the difference in scores between students. Therefore,
the standard deviation is a measure of the variability of the score.
 The large standard deviation values indicate that scores vary greatly
from one another, ie the distribution of the scores is wider
(heterogeneous). On the other hand, the small standard deviation
values indicate that scores are not much different from each other
(homogeneous).
 In other words, the large standard deviation values indicate that
student achievement is very different, while small values indicate the
achievement of almost uniform pupils.

Normal Graph / Curve
 If the student score is

normally distributed, the
normal graph is curved
like a bell.

Normal Graph / Curve (cont…)
 The area under the curve represents all the scores and 50% of
the scores are above the mean. In addition, 34.13% of the score
is no more than a standard deviation above the mean and
34.13% is not less than a standard deviation below min.
 The higher the score than the mean, the less the number of
students earning the score. If student achievement is normally
distributed, the mean, median and mod values are the same.
 Supposedly, normal graphs are generated whenever the test
scores are plotted against the frequency.

 However, sometimes, the graph is not normal. This is because the

questions provided are too easy or the students are too clever. In
this case, negative divergent graphs are generated.
 In such a graph, between the three sizes of central tendencies,
the mean values are the smallest and the largest mod values.
 On the other hand if the test questions are too difficult or the
students are less clever, the positive graphs will be generated.
 In such a graph, among the three central tendency
measurements, the mode has the smallest value while the mean
has the greatest value.

Negative skewed (left skewed) Positive skewed (right skewed)

graph graph
Standard Score
 The standard score is used to compare the position of a

student compared to the other students.
 The standard score can indicate the position of a student
in terms of the standard deviation of the student's score is
from the mean.
 The two standard scores commonly used are z-score and
T-score.

Standard Score (cont…)
 The formula for calculating the z-score is as follows:
 Semakin tinggi nilai skor-z maka semakin

baik pencapaian seseorang murid itu.

 The formula to calculate T-score is:
 The higher the z score the better the student achieves.

 z-scores involve decimal values and negative values.

Instead the T-score only involves a positive whole
number.
 Therefore, T-score allows teachers to read and interpret
student scores.
 The difference is because the T-score distribution has a
mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10 while the z-
score distribution has a mean value of 0 and standard
deviation of 1.

Reporting Assessment Data
 Reporting of assessment data means the delivery of

assessment information on student achievement and
progress in terms of knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes.
 This reporting is usually done on a regular basis.
 Purpose of reporting data:
 Inform student achievement
 Inform the strengths and weaknesses of the students
 Identify the lack of support materials for learning
activities
Reporting Method
 Assessment data can be transmitted using various types of records,

such as progress reports, skills checklists, performance records,
anecdotal records, teacher's notebooks, certificates and profile
records.
 The record of students’ progress conclude students' achievement
either formative, summative or both. It can use:
 The scoring system
 Grade system
 Passed / failed system
 Percentage
 Percentile rank
 Skills checklist

Item Analysis
 An item analysis involves the use of certain techniques and

procedures to determine the quality of the questions (items) in a test
that has been administered.
 Importance of item analysis:
 Allowing an educator to improve the quality of the exam
 Identify problems in teaching and learning
 Construction of item bank
 Usually an item analysis procedure is applied to objective items, in
particularly multiple choice items (MCQ).
 There are three levels of analysis for MCQ: item difficulty, item
discrimination and distractor analysis.

Difficulty Index
 The difficulty of an item, p, is defined as a student rating that can

correctly answer the item. The value of p lies between 0 and 1.
 Formula for item difficulty index:
 According to Bloom, Hastings and Madaus (1971), a good distribution

of test results can be obtained if the difficulty index, p, is in the range
0.20 to 0.80, with a mean between 0.50 to 0.60.

Discrimination Index
 The discriminating feature of a item is defined as the ability of the item

to distinguish between high achievers and low achievers.
 The discrimination index, d, for an item is the difference of the grade of
a high achievement student who gets the item correctly with the
proportion of the low achievement pupils who got the item correctly.
The value d lies between -1 and 1.
 Formula for item discrimination index:

Discrimination Index (cont...)
 RA refers to the number of students who get the correct answer for an
item of high achievement students, the upper group. High
achievement students comprise 27% of the students who received the
highest score in the test involved (Wiersma & Jurs, 1990).
 RB refers to the number of students who received the correct answer

for an item from among the lower achieving pupils, ie the Bottom
Group. Low achievement students comprise 27% of students who
have the lowest score in the test involved (Wiersma & Jurs, 1990).

Discrimination Index (cont...)
 If the difficulty index of an item is less than 0.20 or more than 0.80,
then the item needs to be modified or dropped directly.
 Items with discrimination index 0.20 and above are acceptable while
items with discrimination index of less than 0.20 are bad items.

Distractor Analysis
 The distractor analysis of multiple choice items (MCQ) seeks to

identify problematic distractors.
 There are three main types of problematic distractors:
 Distractors that do not work
 Non-discriminatory or distinguishing districts between high-
achievement group and low achievement group of students
 Distractors where more high-achievers choose the distractors
compared to low-achiever students.
 When a distractor is found to be problematic, then the distractor
needs to be modified or exchanged by another distractor.

Item Bank
 Item bank contains test item files stored for future use of
tests.
 Test items in item bank are usually coded and arranged
according to subjects, level of difficulties, level of
teaching, topics, teaching objectives tested and other
features such as item difficulties and item discrimination
index (Gronlund, 1998).
 In today's era, the use of ICT facilitates the efficient
construction and management of item banks.

Item Bank (cont…)
Advantage Constraints
 Saves time
 There is no need to  The construction process
prepare the test in a hurry is complicated and takes
 Ensuring the same item is a long time
not repeated in the  Need a keen effort to
consecutive year ensure that items in the
 Added variety of tested bank are of high quality
items and item bank handling
 Allows educators to share can run smoothly
items

Conclusion
 An item analysis involves the use of certain techniques and

procedures to determine the quality of the questions (items) in a test
that has been administered.
 Indexes of item difficulties and discrimination are calculated to
determine the quality of the test items. If the item involved is in the
form of multiple choices, then the distractor analysis is also
performed.
 Item bank contains test item files stored for future use of test. With
the presence of item banks, teachers or other educators do not have
to rush in the construction of tests because items have already been
built and piloted.


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 Analyze raw score by using score scaling, frequency table,

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 Describe the purpose of reporting data and reporting methods

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 How to process raw scores using scoring, frequency

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Scores for 20 students of Year 4 Melor for Math test:

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Ascending order (small to big)

Descending order (big to small)

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 Frequency refers to the number of students who get a

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 The score distribution can also be processed by collecting scores into a

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 The frequency distribution can be represented by a graph called a

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 Mode refers to the most

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 For a set of non-accumulated scores, the mean can be calculated by

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 Mode is rarely used in ranking student achievement in assessments.

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 The formula for the mean calculation of the cumulative

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 Standard deviation is the measure associated with the distribution of a

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 If the student score is

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 However, sometimes, the graph is not normal. This is because the

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Negative skewed (left skewed) Positive skewed (right skewed)

 The standard score is used to compare the position of a

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 The formula for calculating the z-score is as follows:

 Semakin tinggi nilai skor-z maka semakin

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 The formula to calculate T-score is:

 The higher the z score the better the student achieves.

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 z-scores involve decimal values and negative values.

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 Reporting of assessment data means the delivery of

 Assessment data can be transmitted using various types of records,

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 An item analysis involves the use of certain techniques and

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 The difficulty of an item, p, is defined as a student rating that can

 Formula for item difficulty index:

 According to Bloom, Hastings and Madaus (1971), a good distribution

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 The discriminating feature of a item is defined as the ability of the item

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 RB refers to the number of students who received the correct answer