EKOLOGI

(PROPERTIES OF POPULATIONS)

Kelompok 6
Ivana Melda A
Riska Fitriyanti
Luthfiah Achmad
Gita Hediani
8.1 Organisms May Be Unitary or Modular

Organisme Kesatuan
Dalam organisme kesatuan , bentuk sangat menentukan: yaitu,
kecuali penyimpangan, semua anjing memiliki empat kaki, semua
cumi memiliki dua mata, dll. Manusia adalah contoh sempurna dari
organisme kesatuan.
Organisme Modular
Di organisme modular organisme modular di sisi lain, waktu atau
bentuk tidak dapat diprediksi. Zigot berkembang menjadi unit
konstruksi (modul, misalnya daun dengan panjang batang yang
menyertainya), yang kemudian menghasilkan modul lebih lanjut
yang serupa. Individu terdiri dari jumlah modul yang sangat
bervariasi, dan program pengembangannya sangat bergantung
pada interaksinya dengan lingkungannya.
8.2 The Distribution of a Population
Defines Its Spatial Location
 Distribusi didasarkan pada adanya kehadiran dan
ketidakhadiran individu
 Distribusi populasi dipengaruhi oleh terjadinya
kondisi terhadap lingkungan yang cocok untuk suatu
individu agar dapat hidup.
 Rentang geografis suatu populasi individu tidak
didistribusikan secara merata diseluruh wilayah.
8.3 Abundance

 The number of individuals in a population.

 Population density is the number of individuals per
unit area or volume. Because landscapes are not
homogeneous, not all of the area is suitable habitat.
The number of organisms in available living space is
the true or ecological density.
  Abundance is a function of two factors:
1. the population density
2. the area over which the population is distributed.

Population density is the number of individuals per unit area or

volume. Because landscapes are not homogeneous, not all of the
area is suitable habitat. The number of organisms in available living
space is the true or ecological density.
 8.4 Determining Density Requires
Sampling
• Population size (abundance) is a function of
population density and the area that is occupied
(geographic distribution)
population size= density x area
• Density must be estimated by sampling the
population
• The estimate of density can also be influenced
by the choice of boundaries or sample units
• For mobile populations, the sampling
method that used is capturing, marking,
and recapturing individuals within a
population (mark-recapture).

• Capture-recapture or mark-recapture
methods are based on trapping,
marking, and releasing a known number
of marked animals ( M ) into the
population ( N ).

• After giving the marked individuals an

appropriate period of time to once again
mix with the rest of the population,
some individuals are again captured
from the population ( n ). Some of the
individuals caught in this second period
will be carrying marks (recaptured, R ).
• For example, suppose that in sampling a population of rabbits,
a biologist captures and tags 39 rabbits from the population.
After their release, the ratio of the number of rabbits in the
entire population (N) to the number of tagged or marked
rabbits (M) is N/M. During the second sample period, the
biologist captures 15 tagged rabbits (R) and 19 unmarked
ones—a total of 34 ( n ). The estimate of population size, N , is
calculated as:

• This simplest method, the single mark–single recapture, is

known as the Lincoln index or Petersen index of relative
population size
• Methods involve observations relating to the presence of
organisms rather than to direct counts of individuals.
• Techniques include counts of vocalizations; counts of animal
scat seen along a length of road traveled; or counts of animal
tracks, such as the number of opossums crossing a certain
dusty road.
• If these observations have some relatively constant
relationship to total population size, you can then convert
the data to the number of individuals seen per kilometer or
heard per hour.
• However, a series of such index figures collected from the
same area over a period of years depicts trends in
abundance.
 8.5 Populations Have Age Structures
• Populations can be divided into
three ecologically important age
classes or stages:
prereproductive, reproductive,
and postreproductive.

• Among annual species, the

length of the prereproductive
stage has little influence on the
rate of population growth and
otherwise in organisms with
variable generation times.

• Determining a population’s age

structure requires some means
of obtaining the ages of its
members.
• The accurate method for
obtain age data is to mark
young individuals in a
population and follow their
survival through time.
• These methods include
examining replacement of
teeth in deer, growth rings in
the cementum of the teeth of bones), and spines.
carnivores, or annual growth
rings in the horns of mountain
sheep.
• For bird observations of
plumage changes and wear in
both living and dead
individuals can separate
juveniles from subadults (in
some species) and adults.
• Aging of fish is most
commonly accomplished by
counting rings deposited
annually (annuli) on hard parts
including scales, otoliths (ear
• Plant age can be obtain with employ size (diameter
of the trunk) as an indicator of age on the
assumption that diameter increases with age—the
geater the diameter, the older the tree.
• For woody plants can determine the approximate
ages of trees in which growth is seasonal by
counting annual growth rings.
• Age pyramids are
snapshots of the age
structure of a
population at some
period in time,
providing a picture of
the relative sizes of
different age groups
in the population.

• The age structure of a

population is a
product of the age-
specific patterns of
mortality and
reproduction
• In plant populations, the distribution of age classes
is often highly skewed, because dominant overstory
trees can inhibit the establishment of seedlings and
growth and survival of juvenile trees.
8.6 Sex Ratios in Populations May Shift
with Age
• Populasi organisme yang bereproduksi secara
seksual memiliki rasio jenis kelamin 1 : 1 (proporsi
laki-laki dan perempuan).
• Rasio pada saat pembuahan juga cenderung 1: 1.
• Secara umum, pria memiliki rentang hidup yang
lebih pendek daripada wanita.
• Harapan hidup laki-laki yang lebih pendek bisa
merupakan hasil dari keduanya faktor fisiologis dan
perilaku.
8.7 Individuals Move Within the
Population
 Individu Bergerak dalam Populasi Pada tahap
tertentu dalam kehidupan mereka, sebagian besar
organisme pada tingkat tertentu bergerak.
 Pergerakan individu secara langsung memengaruhi
kepadatan lokal mereka. Pergerakan individu di
Indonesia ruang disebut sebagai dispersal, meskipun
istilah dispersalmost sering merujuk pada pergerakan
individu-individu yang lebih spesifik dari satu sama
lain.
 Banyak organisme, terutama
tanaman, bergantung pada cara
penyebaran pasif yang
melibatkan gravitasi, angin, air,
dan hewan. Jarak perjalanan
organisme ini tergantung pada
agen d
 Beberapa tanaman, seperti ceri
dan viburnum (Viburnum spp.),
Bergantung pada pembawa aktif
seperti burung dan mamalia
tertentu untuk menyebarkan
benihnya dengan memakan buah-
buahan dan membawa benih ke
titik yang jauh. ispersal.
 migrasi merupakan perjalanan
pulang-pergi. Perjalanan kembali
yang diulang mungkin harian atau
musiman.
 Zooplankton di lautan, misalnya,
bergerak turun ke kedalaman
yang lebih rendah pada siang
hari dan naik ke permukaan
pada malam hari. Gerakan
mereka tampaknya merupakan
respons terhadap intensitas
cahaya.
 Kelelawar meninggalkan tempat
bertengger di siang hari di gua
dan pohon, melakukan perjalanan
ke tempat makan mereka, dan
kembali saat fajar. Migrasi
lainnya bersifat musiman, baik
jarak pendek atau jarak jauh.
8.8 Population Dynamics

 Dispersal has the effect of shifting the spatial

distribution of individuals and as a result the localized
patterns of population density. Although the
movement of individuals within the population results
in a changing pattern of distribution and density
through time, the primary factors driving the dynamics
of population abundance are the demographic
processes of birth and death.
 Emigration may cause density in some areas to
decline
 immigration into other areas will increase the
density of subpopulations or even establish new
subpopulations in habitats that were previously
unoccupied.