1.2.

Solid-state Switching Devices

1.2.1 Power Diode
1.2.2 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

o Gate Turn Off (GTOs)

o Triacs
1.2.3 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

1.2.4 Power MOSFETs

1.2.5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)

1
 Power Electronics Devices
 Power switches: work-horses of PE
Operation in in Saturation
systems.
and cut-off region
i2 Saturation
 Operates in two states: V22 i18
Fully on. i.e. switch closed. R22 i17
Linear region i16
Conducting state C Rc
L i15
i14
i13
 Fully off , i.e. switch opened. R i12
Blocking state V2 i1=0
V2
2

 Power switch never operates in Capacitors Inductors Switch Cut-off

linear mode.
 Components Utilized are “lossless”

L Switches
Electric Electric
Power 1:a Power Inductors
Input C Output
D
Vin, fin, Iin, Vout, fout, Capacitors
phase Iout, phase

Control

Resistors usage to be avoided where ever possible.

3
IDEAL SWITCH i(t )  0
When Switch is Open
Power _ loss  i ( t )  v ( t )  0

i(t) When Switch Closed v(t )  0

+ Power _ loss  i ( t )  v ( t )  0

v(t)
Blocks voltage in both polarity.
-
Conduct Current in both directions

Switch opens or closes instantly with not time

Power loss on ideal switch is zero.

4
 v  Ideal switch:
i
 During turn-on and turn off, ideal switch
requires zero transition time. Voltage
and current are switched
time instantaneously.
 Power loss due to switching is zero
Ideal switching profile
(turn on)
 Real switch:
P=vi
v i  During switching transition, the voltage
requires time to fall and the current
requires time to rise.
Energy  The switching losses is the product of
device voltage and current during
transition.
time
 Major loss at high frequency operation
Real switching profile
(turn-on)

5
Forward conduction loss  Ideal switch:
 Zero voltage drop across it during turn-
Ion on (Von).
 Although the forward current ( Ion ) may
be large, the losses on the switch is zero.
+Von-
Ideal switch
 Real switch:
 Exhibits forward conduction voltage (on
state) (between 1-3V, depending on type
of switch) during turn on.
 Losses is measured by product of volt-
drop across the device Von with the
current, Ion, averaged over the period.

POWER SWITCH  Major loss at low frequency and DC

( Real switch)
Why it is important to consider losses of power switches?
To ensure that the system operates reliably under prescribed ambient
conditions
So that heat removal mechanism (e.g. heat sink, radiators, coolant) can be
specified. losses in switches affects the system efficiency
 Heat sinks and other heat removal systems are costly and bulky. Can be
substantial cost of the total system.
Derating of the power switch ratings may be necessary.
Main losses:
forward conduction losses,
 blocking state losses
 switching losses

7
 Power semiconductor device Can be categorised into three groups:
 Uncontrolled
 Power Diode
 Semi-controlled
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
 Fully Controlled Devices
Gate Turn Off (GTOs)
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
 Power MOSFETs
 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
1.2.1 Power Diode
• Power Diode is simply a single junction devise
with one p-layer over an n-layer.

• Two terminal; Anode connected to p-material

layer and Cathode connected to n-material

• Circuit symbol as shown current flows from

anode to Cathode
Three important Parameters • When the diode is forward biased the current flows
• ON voltage drop, VF
from anode to diode (holes pushed from p-layer to
n-layer, electrons pushed from n-layer to p-layer)
• OFF Current Leakage, IR the flow continues through the circuit due to the
• Reverse Recovery Time
external power supply.

• When the diode is reverse biased it is in OFF

position with a small current leakage.

9
Current-Voltage Characteristics

S1 Id
A (Anode)

IR
+ R
Id Vd +
Vr
_ V
-
Vf Vd

IF
K (Cathode)

Diode: Symbol
Diode equivalent ckt V-I characteristics

 When diode is forward biased, it conducts current with a small forward voltage
(Vf) across it (0.2-3V)

 When reversed (or blocking state), a negligibly small leakage current (uA to
mA) flows until the reverse breakdown occurs.

 Diode should not be operated at reverse voltage greater than Vr

Reverse Recovery
IF  When a diode is switched quickly
trr= ( t2 - t0 ) from forward to reverse bias, it
continues to conduct due to the
t2 minority carriers which remains in
the p-n junction.
t0
VR
 The minority carriers require
IRM finite time, i.e, trr (reverse
VRM
recovery time) to recombine with
opposite charge and neutralise.

 Effects of reverse recovery

are increase in switching losses,
increase in voltage rating, over-
voltage (spikes) in inductive
loads
Types of Power Diodes
 Line frequency (general purpose):
On state voltage: very low (below 1V)
Large trr (about 25us) (very slow response)
Very high current ratings (up to 5kA)
Very high voltage ratings(5kV)
Used in line-frequency (50/60Hz) applications
such as rectifiers
Fast recovery
Very low trr (<1us).
Power levels at several hundred volts and several hundred amps
Normally used in high frequency circuits

Schottky
Very low forward voltage drop (typical 0.3V)
Limited blocking voltage (50-100V)
Used in low voltage, high current application such as switched
mode power supplies.
Recovery of about 100 nanoseconds
 Series and Parallel Connection of Diodes for High power Applications like
HVDC
Voltage Sharing depends on the characteristic curve. Series Diode without resistor
iD
- iD
-
iD
iD
VD1 IR1
+ -VD1 -VD2 VD1 R1
+ -VD1=-VD2
+ VD vD IS1
- + VD vD
- - -IS1
IS2 -
VD2
IS1 VD2 R2
-IS2
IS IR2
+ IS
+
Circuit diagram
V-I cgaracteristics Circuit diagram
V-I cgaracteristics
For steady state voltage sharing R1
and R2 can be selected as:
Transient voltage
voltage sharing

sharing I S  I S1  I R1  I S 2  I R 2
Steady State

V VD 2
I R 1  D1 I R2 
R1 R2

V V
I S1  D1  I S 2  D1
R1 R2
 iS

+
+

VD
iD2 iD1 V
Current sharing of diodes with different characteristics
-
-

iD
iD

vD

Vd1  I d1Z1  Vd 2  I d 2 Z 2
IS1

R-L in series with diodes for equal current sharing

i i
V1 V2 V2 V1
iD2=iD1
+ +
VD VD VD
R1 R2 R2 R1
- -
L1 L2

Parallel connected Parallel connected IS1

Circuit diagram Circuit diagram
V-I cgaracteristics 14
 1.2.2 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
o Thyristor is a three terminal Semi-
controlled switch. It was invented
in early 1950s
o Switching ON is possible, but not
OFF
It is Three terminals
• anode - P-layer
• cathode - N-layer (opposite end)
• gate - P-layer near the cathode
• Three junctions(J1,J2,J3) and
four layers(p-n-p-n)
 V-I characteristics of a thyristor

 The thyristor has three basic modes of

operation, namely
 Forward blocking mode(OFF state)
Reverse blocking mode(OFF state) and
Forward conduction mode (ON state)

If the forward breakover voltage (Vbo) is exceeded, the SCR “self-triggers” into
the conducting state.
The presence of gate current will reduce Vbo.
“Normal” conditions for thyristors to turn on:
the device is in forward blocking state (i.e Vak is positive)
a positive gate current (Ig) is applied at the gate
 Once conducting, the anode current is latched. Vak collapses to normal forward
volt-drop, typically 1.5-3V.
In reverse -biased mode, the SCR behaves like a diode.
 Thyristors Conduction
ig vs

ia
 Positive potential applied to the
wt
gate
 Current will flow - TURNED- + vo
ON vs
_
Once turned on, gate potential
can be removed and the SCR still wt

conducts CALLED LATCHING

ig
 Thyristor cannot be turned off by applying
negative gate current. It can only be turned off if Ia
a wt
goes negative (reverse)
This happens when negative portion of the
of sine-wave occurs (natural commutation),
Another method of turning off is known as “forced commutation”, The anode
current is “diverted” to another circuitry.
Types of Thyristors
Phase controlled
Rectifying line frequency voltage and current for ac and dc motor drives
large voltage (up to 7kV) and current (up to 4kA) capability
low on-state voltage drop (1.5 to 3V)

Inverter grade
used in inverter and chopper
Quite fast. Can be turned-on using “force-commutation” method.

Light activated
Similar to phase controlled, but triggered by pulse of light.
Normally very high power ratings

TRIAC
Dual polarity Thyristors
 Gate Turn OFF SCR (GTO)
 GTO is a special Thyristors which can be turned
off by negative gate current

 GTOs are comparable with SCR in power

capacity having voltage and current rating in the
range of 6kV and 4kA.

The p-n-p-n layers are the same as SCR except at junction J3. At junction J3 the
gate connection is designed in such a way that the current injection from the gate
covers large or all of the junction J3 area. As the result, injection of large reverse
current pulse on the gate can stop the current flow from anode to cathode and
switch-off the device. The reverse gate current required can be as high as 20% of
the anode current which means low current gain.

However; only a short period (order of 50ms) gate pulse is required. 19

TRIACS Current flows both in forward and reverse
direction. It can also block both voltages.

The direction of current flow depends on the polarity of

voltage across the terminals T1 and T2. Compared to
SCRs the rate of change of voltage dv , the current gain,
dt
voltage rating and current ratings are limited. Triacs are
available for voltages of up to 1kV and current of up to
50A.

20
 TRIAC is a type of Thyristors that can conduct current in both
directions when the polarity activated.
 The TRIAC is like the DIAC with a gate terminal.
 The TRICA can be ON by a pulse or gate current
 Basically the TRIAC can be a thought of simply two SCR's
connected in parallel in opposite directions with a common gate
terminal.
 Unlike the SCR the TRIAC can conduct current in either direction
depending on the polarity of voltage across its anode (A1 and A2)
terminals.
1.2.3 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Collector C -Three terminal devices Collector,
Emitter and base.
IC
p
Base IB
- It can be PNP or NPN. Due to
VCE
n relatively easy mobility of
electrons than holes NPN is most
p
J3 IE common.
E

Emitter
(a) (b)

Operating principles can be seen by referring to I-V characteristics of the BJT. Current
flows from collector to emitter while the base current is used to control the current flow.
Therefore; BJT is a current controlled switch.

Common Emitter Configuration is the most used for switch application instead of
common base or common collector configurations.

22
 The three Operation Region

KVL IC

Saturation line
IC
V  I C R L  VCE Saturation region

IB2
RL + Base current
IB1
P2 increasing
V V V P1
IB - I C  - CE 
VCE RL RL IB=0

VBE OFF
Cut-off region

In the linear region VCE is high and is greater than VCB, Collector to base junction is reverse biased.

VCE and VCB decreases with increase in IB. BJT is said to be in saturation region when the collector to base junction is
forward biased by 0.4 to 0.5 V (VCE < VBE ).
VCB  VCE - VBE
I I
 The minimum base current to move the operating point to saturation region is given by I B  CS  CS hFE is
given on datasheets, typical 10% of rated IC. hFE  FE

23
 Power loss
Delay time
Storage time
Rise time
VCE Fall time

IC

90%
10% 10%
(a) Model of BJT
tr tf
t0 t1 t3 t4 t5 t6
ON OFF
 Rise time and fall time are PLoss
important from
• the switching frequency and
• Loss point of view

 The ON voltage drop of BJT is typically in mV range.

24
 Snubber Circuits
Turn-ON snubber
D
DF L
L
+ R
V - R +
V
-
RL LL
Turn-OFF
RL
snubber
DF
DF

Turn-ON snubber Turn-OFF snubber

 The turn on snubber limits the rate of change of current in the transistor
(inductor stores energy) while. High rate of change of current results in high
voltage in the circuit (voltage spikes).
 The turn off snubber limits the rate of change of voltage across the transistor
(capacitor charges slowly). High rate of change of voltage results in high
current.
25
 Darlington
C
 The current gain of ordinary BJT is in the order of 10.

 Darlington connected BJTs are most commonly used. The

current gain depends on the number of transistors in the
Darlington. Two-transistor Darlington has current gain in the order
of 100 while three-transistor Darlington has current gain in the
order of 1000.

Bipolar transistors switching frequency is in the order of

10kHz and its voltage and current rating can be as high as
E
1.5kV and 1kA.

The switching current is important as the power required for control depends on its
value. Darlington BJTs have smaller base current requirements.

26
BJT
Switching frequency of (medium) 20 kHz
Max voltage rating of 1.5 kV
Max current rating of 1 kA
Continuous control current
1.2.4 Power MOSFETs
Power MOSFET Structure (n-channel)
Drain D D
+ a) No gate voltage
n+
b) Switched ON (positive voltage
n+
n- n- on gate)
pp pp
n+ n+ n+ n+ c) Circuit symbol
-
Source S
G
+
Gate G

(a) (b) S
(c)

Current-voltage characteristics of
Power MOSFETs

Off state: VGS < Vth

On state: VGS >> Vth

28
The impedance of the gate to source is very high in the range 109 to 1011.
Therefore; negligible current flows from gate to source that is why power
MOSFET is called voltage controlled device.

 Power MOSFETs switching frequencies are from hundreds of kilohertz to

megahertz range. The power MOSFET rating is up to 500V and 150A.

VDS
90% VSW(st)
10% 90% Cgd
10% D
tD(ON)
tr tD(OFF)
tf Cds
VGS G
Cgs
90%
t =td(ON)+tr
10% ON tOFF=td(Off)+tf S

29
• Due to the absence of junctions and associated carriers swip the Power
MOSFET switching is very fast. It can be switched in Mega Hertz range.

• The gate circuit draws current in micro-ampere range as compared to the

ampere range BJT.

• Conduct current from drain to source and block voltage of positive polarity
on Drain and negative voltage on the source known as forward voltage.
1.2.5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
Collector C C
+  Junction Structure of Insulated Gate
P+ P+ Bipolar Transistor
n+ n+
n- n- a) Structure
pp pp
n+ n+ n+ n+
G
b) Conduction
Emitter E
- c) Circuit symbol
+
Gate G

(a) (b) (c) E

 Current-voltage characteristics of
IGBT

31
IGBT Characteristics
IGBTs are hybrids of the power MOSFET and BJT having the
advantages of the two.
• They are voltage controlled as power MOSFET and
• Have low conduction loss as BJTs.

IGBTs have higher voltage and current rating

• up to 3.5 kV rating and
• Up to 2 kA current ratings .

• The resistance of n-channel is small compared to that of

power MOSFET due to injection of holes from p-layer. As the
result the voltage drop during ON state is low and the current
capacity is higher.
• Switching frequency is in hundreds of kilo Hertz.

32
Power Switches: Power Ratings
• Drivers:

• Protection:

• Snubbers:
To protect the switching devices from transient current and voltage during
switching off and on
• Filters:
To suppress undesired byproduct harmonics to loads to the utility etc.

• Cooling of Heat Sinks:

To remove the heat generated due to power loss in the switching devices

34
 References

1. “Power Electronics, Converters Applications and Design” by Mohan,

Wiley International Edition, 2003, ISBN 0-471-22693-9, USA
Part 6 Semiconductor Drives (chapters 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26)
page 505 to 666
2. Introduction to Modern Power Electronics , Anderzej M. Trzynadlowsky,
Wiley and Sons 1998, ISBN 0-471-15303-6, USA
Chapter 2 Semiconductor Power Switches, page 65 to 91
3. “Power Electronics, Circuits, Devices and Applications” Third edition by
Rashid, Pearson Prentice Hall ,2004, ISBN 0-13-122815-3
Chapter 2, 4, 7, 17

35