Nuclear Chemistry

Radioactivity
• One of the pieces of evidence for the
fact that atoms are made of smaller
particles came from the work of
Marie Curie (1876-1934).
• She discovered radioactivity,
the spontaneous disintegration of
some elements into smaller pieces.
 Nuclear Reactions vs.
Normal Chemical Changes
• Nuclear reactions involve the nucleus
• The nucleus opens, and protons and
neutrons are rearranged
• The opening of the nucleus releases a
tremendous amount of energy that holds
the nucleus together – called binding
energy
• “Normal” Chemical Reactions involve
electrons, not protons and neutrons
23.1
 Types of Radiation

• Alpha (ά) – a positively 4

charged (+2) helium isotope - 2 He
we usually ignore the charge because it
involves electrons, not protons and neutrons
0
•Beta (β) – an electron 1 e
•Gamma (γ) – pure energy;
called a ray rather than a 0
0 
particle
 Other Nuclear Particles
1
• Neutron 0 n
• Positron – a positive 0
electron 1 e

•Proton – usually referred to 1

as hydrogen-1 1 H
•Any other elemental isotope
Penetrating Ability
Geiger-Müller Counter

23.7
 Geiger Counter
• Used to detect radioactive substances
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number

proton neutron electron positron  particle

1
1
p or 1
1
H 0n
1 0
-1 e or 0
-1
 0
+1 e or 0
+1
 4
2 He or 2
4

A 1 1 0 0 4

Z 1 0 -1 +1 2

23.1
 Balancing Nuclear Equations

1. Conserve mass number (A).

The sum of protons plus neutrons in the products must equal
the sum of protons plus neutrons in the reactants.
235 138 96
92 U + 01n 55 Cs + 37 Rb + 2 01n

235 + 1 = 138 + 96 + 2x1

2. Conserve atomic number (Z) or nuclear charge.

The sum of nuclear charges in the products must equal the
sum of nuclear charges in the reactants.
235 138 96
92 U + 01n 55 Cs + 37 Rb + 2 01n
92 + 0 = 55 + 37 + 2x0
23.1
 Po decays by alpha emission. Write the balanced
212

nuclear equation for the decay of 212Po.

alpha particle - 24He or 2

4

84Po 2He + AZX

212 4

212 = 4 + A A = 208

84 = 2 + Z Z = 82

84 Po 2He + 208
82Pb
212 4

23.1
 Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay

Beta decay

6C
14 14
7
N + 0
-1
+ Decrease # of neutrons by 1
19K
40 40
20
Ca + 0
-1
+ Increase # of protons by 1

0n
1 1
1
p + 0
-1
+

Positron decay

6C
11 11
5
B ++10 +  Increase # of neutrons by 1
19K
38 38
18
Ar + 0
+1
+ Decrease # of protons by 1

1p
1 1
0
n + 0
+1
+

 and  have A = 0 and Z = 0

23.2
 Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay
Electron capture decay

18 Ar
37
+ -10e 37
17
Cl +  Increase # of neutrons by 1
55
26Fe + 0
-1
e 55
25
Mn +  Decrease # of protons by 1

1p
1
+ -10e 1
0
n+
Alpha decay

Decrease # of neutrons by 2
84 Po 2He + 208
82Pb
212 4

Decrease # of protons by 2
Spontaneous fission

98Cf 2125 In + 2 0n
252 1
49
23.2
 Learning Check

What radioactive isotope is produced in the

following bombardment of boron?

10 B + 4He ? + 1 n
5 2 0
 Learning Check

What radioactive isotope is produced in the

following bombardment of boron?

10 B + 4He 13 N + 1 n
5 2 7 0
 Write Nuclear Equations!

Write the nuclear equation for the beta

emitter Co-60.

Co
60
e
0
+ Ni
60

27 -1 28
Artificial Nuclear Reactions
New elements or new isotopes of known elements are
produced by bombarding an atom with a
subatomic particle such as a proton or neutron --
or even a much heavier particle such as 4He and
11B.

Reactions using neutrons are called

 reactions because a  ray is usually
emitted.
Radioisotopes used in medicine are often made by 
reactions.
Artificial Nuclear Reactions

Example of a  reaction is production

of radioactive 31P for use in studies of P
uptake in the body.

31 P +
15
1 n --->
0
32 P + 
15
 Transuranium Elements
Elements beyond 92 (transuranium) made
starting with an  reaction

238 U +
92
1 n --->
0
239 U + 
92

239 U
92 ---> 239 Np + 0-1
93

239
93 Np ---> 239 Pu +
94
0 
-1
 Half-Life

• HALF-LIFE is the time that it takes for

1/2 a sample to decompose.
• The rate of a nuclear transformation
depends only on the “reactant”
concentration.
 Half-Life

Decay of 20.0 mg of 15O. What remains after 3 half-lives?

After 5 half-lives?
 Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
For each duration (half-life), one half of the substance
decomposes.
For example: Ra-234 has a half-life of 3.6 days
If you start with 50 grams of Ra-234

After 3.6 days > 25 grams

After 7.2 days > 12.5 grams
After 10.8 days > 6.25 grams
Radiocarbon Dating
14
7 N + 0n
1 14
6C + 1H
1

6C
14 14
7
N + 0
-1
+ t½ = 5730 years

Uranium-238 Dating

92 U
238 206
82Pb + 8 4
2  + 6 -1
0
t½ = 4.51 x 109 years

23.3
 Learning Check!

The half life of I-123 is 13 hr. How much of

a 64 mg sample of I-123 is left after 31
hours?
Biological Effects of Radiation
Radiation absorbed dose (rad)
1 rad = 1 x 10-5 J/g of material
Roentgen equivalent for man (rem)
1 rem = 1 rad x Q Quality Factor
-ray = 1
=1
 = 20

23.8
Effects of Radiation
Nuclear Fission
Representation of a fission process.
 Mass Defect
• Some of the mass can be converted into
energy
• Shown by a very famous equation!

E=mc2
Energy
Mass
Speed of light
 Nuclear binding energy (BE) is the energy required to break
up a nucleus into its component protons and neutrons.
BE + 199F 911p + 1010n
E = mc2
BE = 9 x (p mass) + 10 x (n mass) – 19F mass

BE (amu) = 9 x 1.007825 + 10 x 1.008665 – 18.9984

BE = 0.1587 amu 1 amu = 1.49 x 10-10 J
BE = 2.37 x 10-11J

binding energy
binding energy per nucleon =
number of nucleons
2.37 x 10-11 J
= = 1.25 x 10-12 J
19 nucleons
23.2
 Nuclear Fission
Nuclear chain reaction is a self-sustaining sequence of
nuclear fission reactions.
The minimum mass of fissionable material required to
generate a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is the
critical mass.

Non-critical

Critical
23.5
Diagram of a nuclear power plant
 Nuclear Fusion

Fusion
small nuclei combine

Energy
2 H + H
3 4 He + n +
1

1 1 2 0

Occurs in the sun and other stars

 Nuclear Fusion

Fusion Reaction Energy Released

1 H + 1H 1H + 1H
2 2 3 1
6.3 x 10-13 J
2
1 H + 1H
3 4
2 He + 0n
1 2.8 x 10-12 J

Li + 3.6 x 10-12 J
1H 2 42He
6 2
3

Tokamak
magnetic plasma
confinement

23.6
 Nuclear Fusion

Fusion
• Excessive heat can not be contained
• Attempts at “cold” fusion have
FAILED.
• “Hot” fusion is difficult to contain
 Radioisotopes in Medicine
• 1 out of every 3 hospital patients will undergo a nuclear
medicine procedure
• 24
Na, t½ = 14.8 hr,  emitter, blood-flow tracer

• 131
I, t½ = 14.8 hr,  emitter, thyroid gland activity

• 123
I, t½ = 13.3 hr, ray emitter, brain imaging

• 18
F, t½ = 1.8 hr,  emitter, positron emission tomography

• 99m
Tc, t½ = 6 hr, ray emitter, imaging agent

Brain images
with 123I-labeled
compound

23.7
 Chemistry In Action: Food Irradiation

Dosage Effect

Inhibits sprouting of potatoes, onions, garlics.

Up to 100 kilorad Inactivates trichinae in pork. Kills or prevents insects
from reproducing in grains, fruits, and vegetables.
Delays spoilage of meat poultry and fish. Reduces
100 – 1000 kilorads
salmonella. Extends shelf life of some fruit.
Sterilizes meat, poultry and fish. Kills insects and
1000 to 10,000 kilorads
microorganisms in spices and seasoning.