Electromagnetic Theory

TE-301

Vectors

Lectures 2&3
Basic Vector Algebra

Scalars are quantities having only a magnitude.

•Length, mass, temperature etc.

Vectors are quantities having both a magnitude and

a direction.
•Force, velocity, acceleration etc.

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Coordinate System

Plane z=const
z
z
Plane y=const
Rectangular
y
or Cartesian
x x
Coordinate
y
Point P at (x,y,z)
Plane x=const

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Coordinate System

z Plane z=const
z


Cylindrical
r Point P at (r,,z)
Coordinate

y
Cylinder r=const
Phane =const
x

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Coordinate System
z

Cone  =const
Point P at (r,,)

r

Spherical
 r 
y
Coordinate


Sphere r=const

Plane =const
x

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Vectors in Cartesian Coordinate System
z
(A1, A2, A3)
A
A = A1i + A2j + A3k = (A1, A2, A3)
A3

A1 A2 y i, j, and k are unit vectors pointing

x in the positive x, y, and z directions
z

A1, A2 and A3 are called x, y, and z

k j component of vector A
y
i
x

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Vectors in Cartesian Coordinate System

Magnitude of A: A  A  A12  A22  A32

A A1i  A2 j  A3k
Direction of A: aˆ  
A A12  A2 2  A32
It is a unit directional vector !

Equality: If A = B, it means A = B and also aˆ  bˆ

Does the equality of two vectors necessarily imply that

they are identical?

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Addition of Vectors
Adding corresponding components
A = (A1, A2, A3)
A + B = (A1 + B1, A2 + B2, A3 + B3)
B = (B1, B2, B3)

Geometrical representation
(a) A pair of vectors A and B
(b) Added by the head-to-tail
method
(c) Added by parallelogram law

(d) B is subtracted from A

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Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar
αA = (αA1, αA2, αA3), α is a real number

If α > 0, multiply the length of the vector by α;

the direction unchanged

What happens if α < 0?

If α < 0, multiply the length of the vector by α;

the direction changed by 180°

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Basic Properties of the Above Algebraic

1. Commutative law: A + B = B + A.
2. Associate law: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
3. Zero vector (0, 0, 0): A + (0, 0, 0) = A.
4. Negative vector: -A = (-A1, -A2, -A3).
5. α(A + B) = αA +αB.
6. (αβ)A = α(βA)
7. (α + β)A = αA + βA.

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Dot Product
If A = A1i + A2j + A3k and B = B1i + B2j + B3k
A . B = A1B1 + A2B2 + A3B3

Another name: scalar product.

Example: If A = (1, -3, 2) and B = (4, 5, -8), the dot product

of A and B is -27.
Basic properties of the dot product:
1. A . B = B . A
2. (A + B) . C = A . C + B . C
3. A . (0, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0)
4. A . A = |A|2 = A2

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Geometric Interpretation of Dot Product

A . B = |A||B|cos = ABcos

A .B
cos  
A B

If two nonzero vectors cos  0   90°

A . B = 0, then

Perpendicular

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Cross Product
If A = A1i + A2j + A3k and B = B1i + B2j + B3k

i j k
A  B = A1 A2 A3
B1 B2 B3
 ( A2 B3  B2 A3 )i  ( A1 B3  B1 A3 ) j  ( A1B2  B1 A2 )k

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Geometric Interpretation
A  B = A B sin  nˆ

If two nonzero vectors

A × B = 0, then sin  0   0°or 180°

Parallel

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Example:
Let A = (1, -3, 2) and B = (4, 5, -8), then
i j k
A  B = A B sin  nˆ = 1 3 2
4 5 8
 ((3)  (8)  2  5)i  (1 (8)  4  2) j  (1 5  (3)  4)k
= 14i  16 j  17k

Basic properties of cross product:

1. A × B = -B × A
2. (A + B) × C = A × C + B × C
3. A × (B × C) = (A . C)B – (A . B)C

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Vector and Scalar Functions
A vector valued function A(t) is a rule that associates with
each real number t a vector A(t).

A(t) = A1(t)i + A2(t)j + A3(t)k

For example, f(t) = t3 – 2t + 4 is a scalar function of a

single variable t, while A(t) = cos ti + sin tj + tk is a vector
function of t.

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Vector Differentiation
A vector function A(t) is differentiable at a point t if
A(t  t )  A(t )
A '(t )  lim
t 0 t
exists, and A′(t) is called the derivative of A(t), written as
A′(t) = A1′(t)i + A2′(t)j + A3′(t)k
Calculate the derivative of each component!

Example:
Let A(t) = cos ti + sin tj + tk. Find the derivative of A(t).
Solution:
A′(t) = -sin ti + cos tj + k

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Rules of Vector Differentiation

dA d dA dp
 0, if A = constant. ( pA)  p  A
dt dt dt dt

d dA dB d dB dA
( A  B)   ( A . B)  A .  .B
dt dt dt dt dt dt
d dA du d dB dA
A(u )  ( A  B)  A   B
dt du dt dt dt dt

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Vector Integration
Let A(t) = A1(t)i + A2(t)j + A3(t)k and suppose that the
component functions A1(t), A2(t) and A3(t) are integrable.
Then the indefinite integral of A(t) is defined by

 A(t )dt  i  A (t )dt  j A (t )dt  k  A (t )dt

1 2 3

Calculate the integral of each component!

If A1(t), A2(t) and A3(t) are integrable over the interval

[t1, t2], then the definite integral of A(t) is defined by
t2 t2 t2 t2
t1
A(t )dt  i  A1 (t )dt  j A2 (t )dt  k  A3 (t )dt
t1 t1 t1

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Example
2
Let A(t) = cos ti + sin tj + tk. Find 0
A(t )dt

Solution:
2 2 2 2

0
A(t )dt  i 
0
A1 (t )dt  j
0
A2 (t )dt  k 
0
A3 (t )dt
2 2 2
 i  cos tdt  j sin tdt  k  tdt
0 0 0

2 2 1 2 2
 i sin t 0  j cos t 0 k t
2 0
 2 2k

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Line Integral of Vector Functions
B
B

dl

P
 P  dl   P cos dl ,
L A
dl = dxi +dyj +dzk

C For a closed loop, i.e. ABCA,

Path L A  P  dl
L
= circulation of P around L

Line given by L(x(s), y(s), z(s)), s = parametric variable

dx( s) dy ( s) dz ( s )
dx  ds, dy  ds, dz  ds.
ds ds ds
Always take the differential element dl as positive and
insert the integral limits according to the paths!!!

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Example
For F = yi – xj, calculate the circulation of F along the two
paths as shown below.
Solution:
(1,2,4) dl = dxi +dyj +dzk
C2=Cx+Cy+Cz C1

Cz F  dl  ydx  xdy
Cx
(1,0,0) y
Along path C2
x Cy
(1,2,0)  F  dl   F  dl   F  dl   F  dl
C2 Cx Cy Cz
1 2 4

 F  dl   ydx
C2 0
y 0
   xdy x 1   0dz  2
0 0

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 Example - Continue
(1,2,4)
Along path C1
C2=Cx+Cy+Cz C1

Cz Using x as the parametric variable,

(1,0,0)
Cx the path equations are given as
y

x Cy
(1,2,0) x ( x )  x , y ( x )  2 x, z ( x )  4 x
Therefore,
dx  x  dy  x  dz ( x)
dx  dx  dx, dy  dx  2dx, dz  dx  4dx
dx dx dx
and F dl  ( yi  xj) (dxi  2dxj  4dxk )
 ydx  2 xdx  2 xdx  2 xdx  0

  F  dl  0
C1

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Example - Continue
 F  dl   F  dl   F  dl  2  0
C1 C2

The vector field defined by F in a given domain is non-

conservative. The line integral is dependent on the
integration path!

 F  dl
C
is work done on an object along path C if F = force !!

Yes, because the work done when we move a charge

from one point to another is independent of the path but
determined by the potential difference between these two
points.
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Surface Integral
P
Surface integral or the flux of
P across the surface S is

   P  nˆ dS   P cos  dS
Smooth
Surface S
n̂ S S
dS
n̂ is the outward unit vector
normal to the surface.

For closed surface,

   P  nˆ dS = net outward flux of P.

S

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 Example
If F = xi + yj + (z2 – 1)k, calculate the flux of F across the
surface shown in the figure.
z Solution:
   F  nˆ dS
F S
(-1, -1, 2) (-1, 1, 2)
1 1
  ( xi  yj  ( z 2  1)k ) kdxdy
n̂ 1 1 z 2
(1, -1, 2) 1 1
 
(1, 1, 2)
( z 2  1) dxdy
1 1 z 2
1 1
y   3dxdy
1 1
x
 12

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Volume Integral
 FdV  i 
V V
Fx dV  j Fy dV  k  Fz dV
V V

Evaluation : choose a suitable integration order and then

find out the suitable lower and upper limits for x, y and z
respectively.

Example: Let F = 2xzi – xj + y2k. Evaluate  FdV

V

where V is the region bounded by the surface x = 0, x

= 2, y = 0, y = 6, z = 0, z = 4.

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Volume Integral
Solution:
x2 y 6 z 4
 V
FdV  
x 0  
y 0 z 0
(2 xzi  xj  y 2k )dzdydx
x2 y 6 z 4 x 2 y 6 z 4
 i   2 xzdzdydx  j   ( x)dzdydx
x 0 y 0 z 0 x 0 y 0 z 0
x2 y 6 z 4
k    y 2 dzdydx
x 0 y 0 z 0

 192i  48 j  576k
In electromagnetic,

  dV  Q
V
v = Total charge within the volume

where v = volume charge density (C/m3)

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Scalar Field
Every point in a region of space is assigned a scalar value
obtained from a scalar function f(x, y, z), then a scalar field
f(x, y, z) is defined in the region, such as the pressure in
atmosphere and mass density within the earth, etc.

Partial Derivatives
f f ( x  x, y,...)  f ( x, y,...)
 lim
x x 0 x

Mixed second partials

2 f  f

yx y x

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Example
f f
Let f = x2 + 2y2. Calculate x and y

Solution:
f 
 ( x2  2 y 2 )
x x
 2x

f 
 ( x2  2 y 2 )
y y
 4y

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Gradient
Del operator
  
  i  j k
x y z

Gradient
f f f
grad f  f  i  j k
x y z

Gradient characterizes maximum increase. If at a point P

the gradient of f is not the zero vector, it represents the
direction of maximum space rate of increase in f at P.

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Example
Given potential function V = x2y + xy2 + xz2, (a) find the
gradient of V, and (b) evaluate it at (1, -1, 3).

Solution:
(a) V V V
V  i j k
x y z
 (2 xy  y 2  z 2 )i  ( x 2  2 xy ) j  2 xzk

(b) V  (2  1  9)i  (1  2) j  6k

(1, 1,3)

= 8i  j  6k

8i  j  6k 1 Direction of
aˆ   (8i  j  6k )
82  (1) 2  62 101 maximum increase

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Vector Field
Electric field: E = E(x, y, z), Magnetic field : H = H(x, y, z)
Every point in a region of space is assigned a vector
value obtained from a vector function A(x, y, z), then a
vector field A(x, y, z) is defined in the region.

A A1 A2 A3

 i j k
tl tl tl tl

R
 a sin t1i  a cos t1 j
R(t1, t2) = acos t1i + asin t1j + t2k t1
R
k
t2

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Divergence of a Vector Field
Representing field variations graphically by directed field
lines - flux lines

A B
P P

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Divergence of a Vector Field
The divergence of a vector field A at a point is defined as
the net outward flux of A per unit volume as the volume
about the point tends to zero:

 A  ds
div A  lim S

v 0 v

It indicates the presence of a source (or sink)!  term the

source as flow source. And div A is a measure of the
strength of the flow source.

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Divergence Operator
z

 A  nˆ dS
ˆ z
zA  A  S

xyz

y
ˆ y
yA

ˆ x
xA x, y, z  0
x

The divergence measures the rate at which flux emanates from a region of space.

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Divergence of a Vector Field
In rectangular coordinate, the divergence of A can be
calculated as
  
div A   A  (
i  j  k ) ( A1i  A2 j  A3k )
x y z
A A A
 1 2 3
x y z

For instance, if A = 3xzi + 2xyj – yz2k, then

div A = 3z + 2x – 2yz
At (1, 2, 2), div A = 0; at (1, 1, 2), div A = 4, there is a
source; at (1, 3, 1), div A = -1, there is a sink.

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Curl of a Vector Field
The curl of a vector field A is a vector whose magnitude
is the maximum net circulation of A per unit area as the
area tends to zero and whose direction is the normal
direction of the area.
 A  dl
curl A  lim L
s 0 s
It is an indication of a vortex source, which causes a
circulation of a vector field around it.

Water whirling down a sink drain is an example of a

vortex sink causing a circulation of fluid velocity.
If A is electric field intensity, then the circulation will be
an electromotive force around the closed path.
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Curl of a Vector Field
In rectangular coordinate, curl A can be calculated as

i j k
  
curl A    A 
x y z
a1 a2 a3
 A3 A2   A1 A3   A2 A1 
  i     j   k
 y z   z x   x y 

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Curl of a Vector Field
Example:
If A = yzi + 3zxj + zk, then
i j k
  
curl A    A 
x y z
yz 3zx z
 z  (3zx)    ( yz ) z    (3zx) ( yz ) 
  i     j  k
 y z   z x   x y 
 3xi  yj  2 zk

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 Curl Operator

z y ,  z  0
C  A  dr
x̂ z    A  xˆ  C

yz
y "right-hand rule"
y
z A = velocity vector

  A  xˆ < 0
river
paddle wheel y

A component of the curl tells us the rotation about that axis.

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