“What is Enlightenment?

”
 Born 1724
 German Philosopher
 Epistemology [theory of knowledge], Ethics [moral
philosophy], Aesthetics [art, beauty, taste]
 Kantianism– Kant’s “brand” of Philosophy
 Idealism- the group of philosophies which assert that
reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally
mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise
immaterial.
 Influenced subsequent Philosophy
 The categorical imperative (German: Kategorischer Imperativ) is the
central philosophical concept in the deontological moral philosophy of Immanuel
Kant. Introduced in Kant's 1785 Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, it may
be defined as a way of evaluating motivations for action.
 According to Kant, human beings occupy a special place in creation, and morality
can be summed up in one ultimate commandment of reason, or imperative,
from which all duties and obligations derive. He defined an imperative as any
proposition declaring a certain action (or inaction) to be necessary.
 Hypothetical imperatives apply to someone dependent on them having certain
ends to the meaning:
 if I wish to quench my thirst, I must drink something;
 if I wish to acquire knowledge, I must learn.
 A categorical imperative, on the other hand, denotes an absolute, unconditional
requirement that asserts its authority in all circumstances, both required and
justified as an end in itself. It is best known in its first formulation:
 Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it
should become a universal law
 -- This is our duty; it is “moral law”– our MORAL OBLIGATIONS.
 Kant’s major work
 Hoped to end the era of “skepticism”
 Process experience through REASON.
 BUT
 Need to marry the EMPIRICAL (what is
known to us through experience) with the
RATIONAL (what is known to us through
reason; innate ideas)
 A question that appeared in a publication and
called for responses. Posed by Rev. Johann
Zollner, an official in the Russian government.
 His essay was printed in the Berlin Monthly in
1784.
 Many intellectuals responded, but his article
is the most famous.
 Enlightenment = Maturity
 Enlightenment = Choice
 Enlightenment = Courage
 DARE TO KNOW
 “enlightenment is man’s release from his self-
incurred tutelage.”
 In order for man to understand, we must have
direction from another.
 We all have the ability to reason, but not all of
us choose to use it.
 “Have courage to use your own reason”– to
defy, when necessary.
 Defy tradition.
 Self-Incurred Bondage– External & Internal

 EXTERNAL

 Political
 Legal
 Environmental

 --These chains can’t always be broken, nor

should they be.
 Internal Bondage

 Ignorance
 Laziness
 Cowardice

 We must eradicate these “internal bondages”

completely.
 Internal Bondage– Laziness & Cowardice:

 We pay others to think for us. We pass off our

jobs. But, we need an active will to become
enlightened.

 “a pastor who acts as my conscience”

 “a doctor who prescribes my diet”
 “I have no need to think if only I can pay.”
 This enlightenment requires nothing but freedom--and the
most innocent of all that may be called "freedom":
freedom to make public use of one's reason in all matters.
Now I hear the cry from all sides: "Do not argue!" The
officer says: "Do not argue--drill!" The tax collector: "Do
not argue--pay!" The pastor: "Do not argue--believe!" Only
one ruler in the world says: "Argue as much as you please,
but obey!" We find restrictions on freedom everywhere.
But which restriction is harmful to enlightenment? Which
restriction is innocent, and which advances
enlightenment? I reply: the public use of one's reason
must be free at all times, and this alone can bring
enlightenment to mankind.”
 Necessary for enlightenment but almost
impossible to attain “full” freedom.
 Restrictions on absolute freedom.
 Some restrictions are even necessary.

 Private use of reasoning (should be

restricted)
 Public use of reasoning (should be free)
 Applies to institutions: offices, military,
churches, etc.
 “At times a person must abide with prescribed limitations
of office, community and other social institutions. For
example, if we are employee in an office we must obey the
boss, if we are citizen of the state, we must pay tax, as a
religious person he or she should follow the ecclesiastical
parameters. But where people are in public, they are, they
can comment upon taxation, criticize the boss and utilize
their own reason. Public use of reason is that kind of
reason which is utilized as a scholar, as a critic, as a
philosopher unlike private use of reason.”
 (Civility)
 Q: So, why is freedom sometimes restricted?
 A: Because people are representatives.
 Example: A person who is part of the clergy
isn’t free to say anything against the doctrine
they are representing.
 Public vs. Private
 Example: Priest speaking at mass (private)
 Example: Journalist writing for the paper
(public)
 Private CAN be restricted, Public CAN’T.
 Aufklarung=Enlightenment
 Philosophic movement of 18th century
 * Question Authority * Heightened interest in
politics & culture *Emphasis on the empirical
method (collect date, form conclusion) in
science.
 Center of thought was in France [Voltaire,
Rousseau, D’Alembert & Diderot
(Encyclopedie)]; In America [Benjamin
Franklin, Thomas Paine]; German thinkers
embraced the movement as well.
 Neoclassicism refers to Western movements
in the visual arts, literature, theatre, music,
and architecture that drew inspiration from
“classical” art & culture of Ancient Greece &
Rome.
 Coincided with the Enlightenment &
continued into the early 19th century.
 Kant praises this FTG, who was King of Prussia
(1740-1786).
 He made no attempt to regulate religious life.
 He permitted the “public use of reason”: Argue
as much as you like, but obey!
 People were free to express/publish opinions,
arguments, and criticisms for public discussions
& debate.
 However, our jobs should be done without
complaint: teacher, military officer, clergyman,
etc. This is necessary in order to maintain CIVIL
ORDER.
 What does Kant mean by “enlightenment?”
 Why does he think this is hard for us to
accomplish?
 How does enlightenment spread?
 Why is free speech so important to Kant?
 Can we ever be satisfied?
 What keeps people from learning?
 Freedom to publish and publicly debate
 Free thought would develop and alter the
character of the people
 This would, in turn, influence the principles of
government
 Civil freedom would arise
 Concern with religious authority– fear this
may try to deter freedom of thought
 FINAL QUESTION: Do we live in an
enlightened age, some 200+ years after
Kant? And, Should there be any limits on
freedom of speech?
 DARE TO KNOW!

 Have the courage to use your own

understanding!

 But remember, “you KANT always get what

you want!” –Hedwig and the Angry Inch