ET ZC235 Manufacturing Processes: BITS Pilani

ET ZC235 Manufacturing
Processes
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
METAL CASTING PROCESSES
1. Sand Casting
2. Other Expendable Mold Casting
Processes
3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
Introduction
• Metal-Casting Processes
– First casting were made during 4000 – 3000 BC
– In time many casting processes have been
developed
– Many parts can be made from castings
• Engine blocks
• Cameras
• Gun barrels
• Cook ware
• Etc
Types of Molds
• Expandable molds – mixed with various types of binders or bonding agents
– Sand
– Plaster
– Ceramics
• Note: these molds are able to withstand high temperatures and mold is broken up to
remove the casting
Permanent molds - Made of metal
• Subjected to a higher cooling rate
• Affects grain size
– Used repeatedly
– Casting can be removed easily
• Composite molds - Made of two or more materials
• Sand
• Graphite
• Metal
– Combines advantages of each material
– Used to: Control cooling rates
• Improve mold strength
• Optimize economics of the process
Two Categories of Casting
Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is
sacrificed to remove part
– Advantage: more complex shapes possible
– Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time
to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is
made of metal and can be used to make
many castings
– Advantage: higher production rates
– Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open
mold
Overview of Sand Casting
• Most widely used casting process, accounting for a
significant majority of total tonnage cast
• Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals
with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and
titanium
• Castings range in size from small to very large
• Production quantities from one to millions
Figure 11.1 A large sand casting weighing over

680 kg (1500 lb) for an air compressor frame
(photo courtesy of Elkhart Foundry).
Making the Sand Mold
• The cavity in the sand
mold is formed by
packing sand around
a pattern, then
separating the mold
into two halves and
removing the pattern
• The mold must also
contain gating and
riser system
• If casting is to have
Steps in Sand Casting
1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
– Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to
improve metallurgical properties
Figure is from
www.themetalcasting.com
The Pattern
A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account for
shrinkage and machining allowances in the casting
• Pattern materials:
– Wood - common material because it is easy
to work, but it warps
– Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts
much longer
– Plastic - compromise between wood and
metal
Top center is the clay original, then the two part
plaster mold used for casting the lead at above, and
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, wax cast from mold, sprued for better brass casting,
Inc. M P Groover, not yet cast. 2008-01-12.
Fundamentals of Modern homepages.waymark.net/mikefirth/tapper6881b.jpg
Types of Patterns
Figure 11.3 Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
Core
Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part
• It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
• The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold
cavity and the core to form the casting's external and
internal surfaces
• May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity
during pouring, called chaplets
Figure 11.4 (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b)
©2007 John Wiley & Sons,
possible chaplet
Inc. M P Groover, design, (c) casting with internal cavity.
Fundamentals of Modern
Desirable Mold Properties
• Strength - to maintain shape and resist
erosion
• Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to
pass through voids in sand
• Thermal stability - to resist cracking on
contact with molten metal
• Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow
casting to shrink without cracking the
casting
• Reusability - can sand from broken mold
Foundry Sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
• Good refractory properties - capacity to endure high temperatures
• Small grain size yields better surface finish on the cast part
• Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to escape
during pouring
• Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to interlocking,
compared to round grains
– Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability
Binders
 Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
 Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
 Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
 Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
©2007 John
Additives
Wiley & Sons,are sometimes combined with the mixture to
Inc. M P Groover,
increase
Fundamentals strength and/or permeability
of Modern
Types of Sand Mold
• Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay,
and water;
– “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of
pouring
• Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather
than clay
– And mold is baked to improve strength
• Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity
surface of a green-sand mold to a depth of
10 to 25 mm, using torches or heating
Expanded Polystyrene Process
Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern
which vaporizes when molten metal is poured into mold
 Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative-foam process, and full-mold process
 Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system,
and internal cores (if needed)
 Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections
From www.wtec.org/loyola/casting/fh05_20.jpg
Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene casting process: pattern of

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
polystyrene is coated with refractory compound;
Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene

Figure 11.7 Expanded casting process: (3) molten metal is
polystyrene casting process: poured into the portion of the pattern
(2) foam pattern is placed in that forms the pouring cup and sprue.
mold box, and sand is As the metal enters the mold, the
compacted around the pattern; polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead
of the advancing liquid, thus the
resulting mold cavity is filled.
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:
 Pattern need not be removed from the mold
 Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because two
mold halves are not required as in a conventional
green-sand mold
 Disadvantages:
 A new pattern is needed for every casting
 Economic justification of the process is highly
dependent on cost of producing patterns
 Applications:
 Mass production of castings for automobile
engines
 Automated and integrated manufacturing
systems are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting
operation
Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)
A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory
material to make mold, after which wax is melted
away prior to pouring molten metal
 "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of
"invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to
coating of refractory material around wax pattern
 It is a precision casting process - capable of
producing castings of high accuracy and intricate
detail
Investment Casting
Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are

produced, (2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form
a pattern tree
Investment Casting
Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated
with a thin layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by
covering the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make
it rigid
Investment Casting
Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an

inverted position and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out
of the cavity, (6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the
molten metal is poured, and it solidifies
Investment Casting
Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is

broken away from the finished casting and the parts are
separated from the sprue
Investment Casting
Figure 11 9 A one-piece compressor stator with 108

separate airfoils made by investment casting (photo
courtesy of Howmet Corp.).
 Advantages of investment casting:
 Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be
cast
 Close dimensional control and good surface
finish
 Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
 Additional machining is not normally
required - this is a net shape process
 Disadvantages
 Many processing steps are required
 Relatively expensive process
Plaster Mold Casting
Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster
of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
 In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured
over plastic or metal pattern and allowed to set
 Wood patterns not generally used due to
extended contact with water
 Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern,
capturing its fine details and good surface finish
 Advantages of plaster mold casting:
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Capability to make thin cross-sections
 Disadvantages:
 Mold must be baked to remove moisture,
which can cause problems in casting
 Mold strength is lost if over-baked
 Plaster molds cannot stand high
temperatures, so limited to lower melting
point alloys
Plaster-Mold Casting
 Mold is made of plaster

 Mixed with water and additives
and poured over a pattern
 After plaster sets, pattern is
removed and the mold is dried at
120 C
 Have low permeability – gases
can not escape
 Patterns are made of:
 Al alloys,
 Thermosetting plastics
 Brass or Zinc alloys
 Have fine details and good
surface finish
 Form of precision casting
Ceramic-Mold Casting
• Molds are baked in an oven

 Similar to plaster-mold process
• Molds can be used to cast high-
temperature alloys
 Uses refractory mold materials • Castings have good surface finishes
• Good dimensional accuracy
 Suitable for high temperature
applications • Some what expensive to make
 Mixture made of:

 Fine grained zircon
 Aluminum oxide
 Silica
 Mixture is mixed with bonding

agents and poured over pattern
Permanent Mold Casting Processes
 Economic disadvantage of expendable mold
casting: a new mold is required for every casting
 In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
 The processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting
The Basic Permanent Mold Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and closing
 Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are
commonly made of steel or cast iron
 Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures
Permanent Mold Casting
Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is

preheated and coated
Permanent Mold Casting
Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if used)
are inserted and mold is closed, (3) molten metal is poured into
the mold, where it solidifies.
Advantages and Limitations
 Advantages of permanent mold casting:
 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 More rapid solidification caused by the cold
metal mold results in a finer grain structure,
so castings are stronger
 Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting
point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand
casting because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold
Applications of Permanent Mold Casting
 Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high
volume production and can be automated
accordingly
 Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and
certain castings for aircraft and missiles
 Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper-base alloys, and cast iron
Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten
metal is injected into mold cavity under high
pressure
 Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is
what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes
Die Casting Machines
 Designed to hold and accurately close two mold
halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity
 Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects
liquid metal under high pressure into the die
 High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
 Applications limited to low melting-point metals that
do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (1) with die closed

and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber (2)
plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification.
Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
 High production but not usually as fast as
hot-chamber machines because of pouring step
 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
 Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use
on low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
Cold-Chamber Die Casting
Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (1) with die

closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into
the chamber
Cold-Chamber Die Casting
Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal

to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.
Die Casting Examples
Fig 11.1 (a) The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with AZ91D die-cast, high purity
magnesium case. (b) Two-piece Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber die
casting process
Molds for Die Casting
 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging
steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
 Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent
sticking
Advantages and Limitations
 Advantages of die casting:
 Economical for large production quantities
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Thin sections are possible
 Rapid cooling provides small grain size and
good strength to casting
 Disadvantages:
 Generally limited to metals with low metal
points
 Part geometry must allow removal from die
Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes
molten metal to outer regions of die cavity
 The group includes:
 True centrifugal casting
 Semicentrifugal casting
 Centrifuge casting
True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a
tubular part
 In some operations, mold rotation commences after
pouring rather than before
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
 Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces
True Centrifugal Casting
Figure 11.15 Setup for true centrifugal casting.
Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings
rather than tubular parts
 Molds are designed with risers at center to supply
feed metal
 Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion where
quality is lowest
 Examples: wheels and pulleys
Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away from
axis of rotation, so that molten metal poured into
mold is distributed to these cavities by centrifugal
force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods
Vacuum Casting
1. Mixture of fine sand and

urethane is molded over
metal dies a cured with
amine vapor
2. The mold is partially
immersed into molten
metal held in an
induction furnace
3. The metal is melted in air
or in a vacuum
4. The molten metal is
usually 55 C above the
liquidus temperature –
begins to solidify within a 5. Alternative to investment, shell-
fraction of a second mold, and green-sand casting
6. Relatively low cost
Slush Casting
 Molten metal is poured into the metal mold
 A desired thickness of the solidified skin is obtained
 The remaining metal is poured out
 The mold halves are then opened and the casting is removed
Pressure Casting
 Used a graphite or metal mold
 Molten metal is forced into the mold by gas pressure
 The pressure is maintained until the metal solidifies in the mold
 Used for high-quality castings
Pressure Casting
(a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite molds for the
productin of steel railroad wheels. (b) Gravity pouring method of casting a
railroad wheel. Note that the pouring basin also serves as a riser.
Additional Steps After Solidification
 Trimming
 Removing the core
 Surface cleaning
 Inspection
 Repair, if required
 Heat treatment
Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash,
fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal from the
cast part
 For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections
are relatively small, appendages can be broken off
 Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing,
band-sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various
torch cutting methods are used
Removing the Core
If cores have been used, they must be removed
 Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of
casting as the binder deteriorates
 In some cases, they are removed by shaking
casting, either manually or mechanically
 In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
 Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out
Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise
enhancing appearance of surface
 Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with coarse
sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and
chemical pickling
 Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting
 In many permanent mold processes, this step
can be avoided
 Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is
needed to detect their presence
Heat Treatment
 Castings are often heat treated to enhance
properties
 Reasons for heat treating a casting:
 For subsequent processing operations such as
machining
 To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service
Casting Quality
 There are numerous opportunities for things to go
wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality
defects in the product
 The defects can be classified as follows:
 General defects common to all casting processes
 Defects related to sand casting process
General Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely
filling mold cavity
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun
General Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is
a lack of fusion due to premature freezing
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut
General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by

solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of
mold gases during pouring
Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow
Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting
Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes
Sand Casting Defects: Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate
into sand mold or core, causing casting surface to
consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal
Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration
Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by

sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag
Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift
Foundry Inspection Methods
 Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as
misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws
 Dimensional measurements to insure that
tolerances have been met
 Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests
concerned with quality of cast metal
Metals for Casting
 Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather
than pure metals
 Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties
of product are better
 Casting alloys can be classified as:
 Ferrous
 Nonferrous
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron
 Most important of all casting alloys
 Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that
of all other metals combined
 Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3)
white cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast
irons
 Typical pouring temperatures  1400C (2500F),
depending on composition
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel
 The mechanical properties of steel make it an
attractive engineering material
 The capability to create complex geometries makes
casting an attractive shaping process
 Difficulties when casting steel:
 Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for
most other casting metals  1650C (3000F)
 At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so
molten metal must be isolated from air
 Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum
 Generally considered to be very castable
 Pouring temperatures low due to low melting
temperature of aluminum
 Tm = 660C (1220F)
 Properties:
 Light weight
 Range of strength properties by heat treatment
 Easy to machine
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper Alloys
 Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze
 Properties:
 Corrosion resistance
 Attractive appearance
 Good bearing qualities
 Limitation: high cost of copper
 Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades,
pump components, ornamental jewelry
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys
 Highly castable, commonly used in die casting
 Low melting point – melting point of zinc Tm = 419C
(786F)
 Good fluidity for ease of casting
 Properties:
 Low creep strength, so castings cannot be
subjected to prolonged high stresses
Product Design Considerations
 Geometric simplicity:
 Although casting can be used to produce
complex part geometries, simplifying the part
design usually improves castability
 Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
 Simplifies mold-making
 Reduces the need for cores
 Improves the strength of the casting
 Corners on the casting:
 Sharp corners and angles should be avoided,
since they are sources of stress concentrations
and may cause hot tearing and cracks
 Generous fillets should be designed on inside
corners and sharp edges should be blended
 Draft Guidelines:
 In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates
removal of pattern from mold
 Draft = 1 for sand casting
 In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in

removal of the part from the mold
 Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold processes
 Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores

are used
Draft
 Minor changes in part design can reduce need for
coring
Figure 11.25 Design change to eliminate the need for using a

core: (a) original design, and (b) redesign.
 Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish:
 Significant differences in dimensional
accuracies and finishes can be achieved in
castings, depending on process:
 Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for
sand casting
 Good dimensional accuracies and finish for
die casting and investment casting
 Machining Allowances:
 Almost all sand castings must be machined to
achieve the required dimensions and part
features
 Additional material, called the machining
allowance, is left on the casting in those surfaces
where machining is necessary
 Typical machining allowances for sand castings
are around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)
Trends – impacting industry
 Continuing mechanization & automation of the casting

process
 Increasing demand for high-quality castings
Ex: Typical gray-iron

Castings used in automobiles
Gating System
• The term gating system refers to all passageways through

which the molten metal passes to enter the mould cavity.
• The gating system is composed of Pouring basin

Sprue Runner Gates Risers
Pouring
cup
Riser
Sprue
Casting
Sprue base
Runner
Gate
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Gating System
Any gating system designed should aim at providing a

defect free casting. This can be achieved by considering
following requirements.
A gating system should avoid sudden or right angle
changes in direction.
A gating system should fill the mould cavity before
freezing.
The metal should flow smoothly into the mould without
any turbulence. A turbulence metal flow tends to form
dross in the mould.
Unwanted materials such as slag, dross and other mould
materials should not be allowed to enter the mould
cavity.
Gating System
The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly

controlled in such a way that aspiration of the atmospheric
air is prevented.
A proper thermal gradient should be maintained so that the
casting is cooled without any shrinkage cavities or
distortions.
Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no gating
or mould erosion takes place.
The gating system should ensure that enough molten metal
reaches the mould cavity.
It should be economical and easy to implement and remove
after casting solidification
Gating System
For proper functioning of the gating system, the following

factors need to be controlled.
Type of pouring equipment, such as ladles, pouring basin
etc.
Temperature/ Fluidity of molten metal.
Rate of liquid metal pouring.
Type and size of sprue.
Type and size of runner.
Size, number and location of gates connecting runner
and casting.
Position of mould during pouring and solidification

Pouring Cup
Pouring
cup
Riser
Sprue
Casting
Sprue base
Runner
Gate

• A pouring basin makes it easier for the ladle or crucible
operator to direct the flow of metal from crucible to
sprue.
• Helps maintaining the required rate of liquid metal flow. •
Reduces turbulence at the sprue entrance.
• Helps separating dross, slag etc., from metal before it
enters the sprue.
•If the pouring basins are made large, Dross and slag
formation will tend to float on the surface of the metal
and may be stopped from entering the sprue and hence
the mould.

Pouring Cup
 The main function of the pouring basin is to reduce the

momentum of the liquid flowing into the mould.
 To prevent the turbulence of the molten liquid the pouring
basin should be deep and the entrance into the sprue should
be a smooth radius of at least 25R mm.
 To prevent vortex formation the pouring basin should be kept
full.

Pouring Cup
 Constant flow conditions should be maintained by using a delay

screen or strainer core.
 The metal should be poured steadily into the pouring basin
keeping the lip of the ladle as close as possible.
 Pouring basins are preferable with castings in alloys which form
troublesome oxide skins (aluminium, aluminium bronze, etc..)

Sprue
A sprue feeds metal to runner which in turn reaches the

casting through gates.
• A sprue is tapered with its bigger end at top to receive the

liquid metal. The smaller end is connected to runner
Pouring
cup
Riser
Sprue
Casting
Sprue base
Runner
Gate

Sprue Design
 Air Aspiration: if pressure anywhere in the flow stream

falls below the atmospheric pressure then gases
originating from mould will enter into the molten metal
stream producing porous casting. This is known as air
aspiration
 To avoid air aspiration, sprue should be tapered and

sharp corners should be avoided

Sprue
Metal pouring cup
Liquid metal
Metal pulling
down
Low pressure Sprue
Corners zone
Gate Gate
(a) Straight sprue (b) Tapered sprue

Sprue Design
Applying Bernoulli' s equation at 2 and 3

p2 v22 p3 v32
  gh2    gh3
 2  2
p3  0, h3  0andv2  v3 ( A2  A3 )
p 2   gh
it shows that the pressure at point 2 is below atmospheric
at least P2  0 which gives
A2 ht

A3 hc

Airaspiration

Sprue size calculation
Calculate the dimensions of the sprue to avoid air

aspiration effect to feed liquid metal at a rate of 20 kg/s.
density of liquid metal is 7800 kg/m3. Assume the height
of sprue as 16 cm and height of pouring basin is 9 cm.

Sprue size calculation
In a gating design height of the sprue is 200 mm, cross

sectional area of sprue at the beginning is 650 mm2,
discharge rate of liquid metal is 6.5 X 105 mm3/s. What is
the cross sectional area of the sprue at the bottom.

Runner
In large castings the molten metal carried from sprue to gates

around the cavity through a passage way called runner is
generally prefered in drag, same times in cope depends on
shape of casting . The Runners are of large cross-section
and often streamlined to slow down and smooth out the
flow, and are designed to provide approximately uniform
flow rates to the various parts of the mould cavity. It
provides to avoide aspiration and turbulence. Runners are
commonly made circular in cross-section.
Gate (Ingate)
A gate is a channel which connects runner with the mould

cavity and through which molten metal flows to fill the
mould cavity. • A small gate is used for a casting which
solidifies slowly and vice versa. • A gate should not have
sharp edges as they may break during pouring and sand
pieces thus may be carried with the molten metal in the
mould cavity.
1. Top gate 2. Bottom gate 3. Parting line gate 4.Step gate

Top Gate
A top gate is sometimes also called as Drop gate because

the molten metal just drops on the sand in the bottom of
the mould.
• Generation of favourable temperature gradients to enable
directional solidification from the casting towards the
gate which serves as a riser too.
Disadvantages
•The dropping liquid metal stream erodes the mould
surface.
•There is a lot of turbulence.

Top Gate
applying Bernoulli' s equation at 1and 3
p1v12 p3 v32
  gh1    gh3
 2  2
p1  p3  0, v1  0 & h3  0
v3  2 ght
Applying Continuity equation
V
tf 
A3v3
Bottom Gate
A bottom gate is made in the drag portion of the mould. • In a

bottom gate the liquid metal fills rapidly the bottom portion
of the mould cavity and rises steadily and gently up the
mould walls. • As comparison to top gate, bottom gate
involves little turbulence and sand erosion. • Bottom gate
produces good casting surfaces.
Disadvantages
• In bottom gates, liquid metal enters the mould cavity at the
bottom. If freezing takes place at the bottom, it could choke
off the metal flow before the mould is full. • A bottom gate
creates an unfavourable temperature gradient and makes it
difficult to achieve directional solidification.

Bottom gate
v3  2 g (ht  h)
Am 2
tf  ( ht  ht  hm )
A3 2 g

Filling time calculations
In a gating designdimensions of mould cavity is 50 X 25 X

15 cm3. The cross sectional area of gate is 5 cm2. Height
of liquid metal above the gate is 15 cm. Determine the
time required to fill the cavity using top and bottom
gating.

Partingline gating system
Middle or side or parting gating systems combine the

characteristics of top and bottom gating systems.
• In this technique gate is provided along the parting line
such that some portion of the mould cavity will be below
the parting line and some portion will be above the
parting line.
• The cavity below the parting line will be filled by
assuming top gating and the cavity above the parting line
will be filled by assuming bottom gating.

Parting line gating
Determine the time required to fill the mould cavity shown

in figure

Gating Ratio
Gating ratio= a:b:c where, • a= cross-sectional area of

sprue • b= cross-sectional area of runner • c= total cross-
sectional area of ingates.
• Gating ratio reveals-
• whether the total cross- section decreases towards the
mould cavity. This provides a choke effect which
pressurizes the liquid metal in the system.
• Whether the total cross-sectional area increases so
that the passages remain incompletely filled. It is an
unpressurized system.

Solidification time

Solidification time
1. A molten drop of liquid metal which is spherical in shape

with radius 2 mm solidifies in 10 sec. what is the
solidification time of same molten drop with double
radius.

Solidification time
A spherical and cylindrical castings of same volume have

been casted with same metal, the height of cylinder is
equals to its diameter. what is the ration of solidification
times

Solidification time
Two castings one is cube and another is slab both are

made up of same material and having same volume.But
the slab dimensions are in the ratio of 1:2:4. What is the
ratio of solidification time of cube to slab.

Riser
 Function of the riser
 Types of risers
Top riser
Sider Riser
 Optimum h/d ratio for top riser is 1 for side riser and 0.5
for top riser.
 Volume of the riser should be three times of volumetric
shrinkage of the casting.
Riser Design
Determine the dimensions of the cylindrical riser to be used

for casting as aluminium cube of sides 15 cm. The
volumetric shrinkage of aluminium during solidification is
6.5%.

ET ZC235 Manufacturing Processes: BITS Pilani

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Figure 11.1 A large sand casting weighing over

Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene casting process: pattern of

Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is

Figure 11 9 A one-piece compressor stator with 108

 Mold is made of plaster

• Molds are baked in an oven

 Mixture made of:

 Mixture is mixed with bonding

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is

Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (1) with die closed

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (1) with die

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal

1. Mixture of fine sand and

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

Depression in surface or internal void caused by

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

A step in cast product at parting line caused by

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

 Reduces the need for cores

 Improves the strength of the casting

 In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in

 Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores

Figure 11.25 Design change to eliminate the need for using a

die casting and investment casting

 Continuing mechanization & automation of the casting

 Increasing demand for high-quality castings

Ex: Typical gray-iron

• The term gating system refers to all passageways through

• The gating system is composed of Pouring basin

Any gating system designed should aim at providing a

The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly

For proper functioning of the gating system, the following

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 The main function of the pouring basin is to reduce the

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 Constant flow conditions should be maintained by using a delay

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

A sprue feeds metal to runner which in turn reaches the

• A sprue is tapered with its bigger end at top to receive the

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 Air Aspiration: if pressure anywhere in the flow stream

 To avoid air aspiration, sprue should be tapered and

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Metal pouring cup

(a) Straight sprue (b) Tapered sprue

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Applying Bernoulli' s equation at 2 and 3

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Calculate the dimensions of the sprue to avoid air

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

In a gating design height of the sprue is 200 mm, cross

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus