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Unit-I :

Hydrogeology :

Exploration of ground water

Groundwater in Igneous and metamorphic rocks

Groundwater in sedimentary rocks

Groundwater in sediments

Groundwater in regions of climatic extremes

Groundwater provinces of India

Case histories of typical groundwater studies in India.


Unit-1 1
Life depends on water. Our entire living world—plants,
animals, and humans—is unthinkable without abundant
water.

Human cultures and societies have rallied around water


resources for tens of thousands of years—for drinking, for
food production, for transportation, and for recreation, as
well as for inspiration.

Worldwide, more than a third of all water used by human


beings comes from groundwater.

In rural areas the percentage is even higher: more than


half of all drinking water worldwide is supplied from
ground water.
Unit-1 2
When we think of fresh water we probably think of rivers,
lakes and perhaps reservoirs.

Yet even when we consider the huge lakes of North America


or mighty rivers like the Amazon and the Ganges, over 97% of
the planet's fresh water is to be found under the surface of the
earth in the form of groundwater.

In many parts of the world groundwater is the main source of


water for day to day use.

Boreholes driven down into the saturated layer under the


ground yield water for different uses.

It is also extensively used as a low cost rural water supply.

Unit-1 3
In California, rural areas’ dependence on ground water is
even greater.

California has 8,700 public water supply systems.

Of these, 7,800 rely on ground water, drawing from more


than 15,000 wells. In addition, there are tens of thousands of
privately owned wells used for domestic water supply within
the state.

Overall, ground water supplies one third of the water used in


California in a typical year, in drought years as much as
one-half.

Unit-1 4
WHAT IS GROUND WATER?

Despite our heavy reliance on ground water, its nature remains


a mystery to many people.

Many find it hard to imagine that water can move underground


at rates sufficient to allow California’s largest springs to
discharge almost 1 million gallons per minute .

Likewise, it is hard to understand how a domestic or irrigation


well can extract from 500 to 2,000 gallons of water per minute
out of a pipe in the ground that is merely 1 foot in diameter.

Unit-1 5
Ground water is water that fills pores and fractures in the ground.

The top of ground water is called the water table.

Between the water table and the land surface is the unsaturated
zone or vadose zone.

In the unsaturated zone, moisture is moving downward to the


water table to recharge the ground water.

The water table can be very close to the surface (within a few
m), or very deep (up to several hundred m).

Unit-1 6
Unit-1 7
Groundwater has many benefits.

It is cheap to develop because of its naturally good quality


and widespread occurrence.

It is reliable even in times of drought due to the large amounts


stored under the surface.

It is also protected against catastrophic events - if natural


disasters or war disrupt surface water distribution, then
groundwater reserves can easily be developed.

Some areas near the surface may not be saturated with water
and only have an intermittent supply of water.

Unit-1 8
When we draw groundwater from deep aquifer supplies, we
are tapping into water locked away under the surface and
filtered through layer upon layer of soil.

This is one of the reasons why groundwater is so reliable.

In the rocks that make up the hills and mountains ,ground


water is quite common. In these rocks ground water occupies
practically every fracture and fissure below the water table.

Unit-1 9
Hydrogeology (hydro- meaning water, and -geology meaning
the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with
the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and
rocks of the Earth's crust, (commonly in aquifers).

The term geohydrology is often used interchangeably.

Some make the minor distinction between a hydrologist or


engineer applying themselves to geology (geohydrology),
and a geologist applying themselves to hydrology
(hydrogeology).

Unit-1 10
What is Hydrogeology?

Hydrogeology is a branch of geology.

Geology means the study of rocks and the structures that are
formed over vast periods of time.

The way that sediments have been deposited to create different


layers of rock beneath the surface, or the way that rocks have
been heated and folded over millions of years to create complex
structures are the subjects of geology.

Unit-1 11
Hydrogeology looks at how water interacts with geological
systems.

But there is more to hydrogeology than wet rocks.

Water is a vital natural resource for people all around the


world - whether it is piped to homes or drawn out of wells.

Understanding where it is and how it moves under the ground


is essential in protecting this resource.

By using geological maps and taking samples of underground


and surface water for analysis, hydrogeologists are able build
detailed pictures of how water flows through porous rocks
underground.
Unit-1 12
Definitions of Hydrogeology:

“ It is Groundwater hydrology. Branch of Science dealing with


occurrence , distribution and movement of water below the
surface of earth.” DK Todd.

“ It is the Science which deals with occurrence , distribution


and movement, storage and character of subterranean
waters.” OE Meinzer.

“ It is the science concerned with not only with groundwater


but also with erosion, sedimentation and channel formation.”
Dewiest.

Unit-1 13
Early theories :

Greek and Roman philosophies: Till the beginning of 17 th


century, the concept of water emerging from the springs
cannot be derived from precipitation.

Greek philosophers, such as Homer, Thales and Plato were of


the opinion springs were formed by the sea water and it got
purified as it rises.

Aristotle : Air enters under the cold dark caverns under the
mountains where it is condensed into water and contributes to
the springs. All Romans ,except Vitrivious, had the same
opinion.

Unit-1 14
KANAT – A HORIZONTAL TUNNEL INTO THE HILLS , WITH VERTICAL WELLS

Unit-1 15
Unit-1 16
Why is Hydrogeology important?

Some parts of the world are blessed with frequent rainfall and
plentiful surface water resources, but most countries need to use
the water that is stored underground to supplement their needs.

Hydrogeologists can help by locating suitable reserves and by


assessing how much water it is possible to extract without
permanently damaging underground aquifers or surrounding
ecosystems.

By looking at the way that groundwater flows, hydrogeologists can


also identify when it is at risk from pollution and how we can
protect it by careful planning and land-use.

Without the knowledge of hydrogeology we have no way of


predicting what will happen to our water resources or the future
effects on the environment of water
Unit-1 extraction. 17
Hydrogeology is a interdisciplinary subject:

Hydrogeology (like most earth sciences) is an


interdisciplinary subject.

It can be difficult to account fully for the chemical,


physical, biological and even legal interactions between
soil, water, nature and man.

Although the basic principles of hydrogeology are very


intuitive (e.g., water flows "downhill"), the study of their
interaction can be quite complex.

Unit-1 18
Taking into account the interplay of the different facets of a
multi-component system often requires knowledge in several
diverse fields at both the experimental and theoretical levels.

Some of them are:

* Earth sciences
* Civil Engineering, Hydrology& Fluid mechanics
* Electrical and Mechanical Engineering
* Mathematics
* Physics and Chemistry
* Petrolium and chemical Engineering
* Economics and Finance

Unit-1 19
Hydrogeology deals with the flow of water through aquifers
and other shallow porous formations.

Flow of water in the subsurface is pertinent to the fields of soil


science, agriculture and civil engineering.

The general flow of fluids (water, hydrocarbons, geothermal


fluids, etc.) in deeper formations is also a concern of
geologists, geophysicists and petroleum geologists.

Groundwater is a slow-moving, viscous fluid (Reynolds


number less than 1). Therefore, the analytical foundations of
groundwater flow were taken from the fields of fluid dynamics
and mechanical engineering.

Unit-1 20
The mathematical relationships used to describe the flow of
groundwater are the diffusion and Laplace equations, which
have applications in many diverse fields.

Steady groundwater flow (Laplace equation) has been


simulated using electrical, elastic and heat conduction
analogies.

Transient groundwater flow is analogous to the transient


diffusion of heat in a solid and some solutions to hydrological
problems have borrowed solutions from the heat transfer
literature.

Unit-1 21
Traditionally, the movement of groundwater has been
studied separately from surface water, climatology, and even
the chemical and microbiological aspects of hydrogeology.

As the field of hydrogeology matures, the strong interactions


between groundwater, surface water, water chemistry, soil
moisture and even climate are becoming more clear.

Unit-1 22
Earth is formed from a cloud of dust and gas drifting
through space about 4600 million years ago.

Dense minerals sank to the centre while lighter ones


formed a thin rocky crust.

About 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by water.

Unit-1 23
There are four main
layers:
Inner core,
Outer core
Mantle
Crust (layer near
the surface of the
earth).

The heat from inner


core causes material in
the molten outer core
and mantle to circulate
in convection currents.

Unit-1 24
Unit-1 25
Rocks

The Earth is made of rock, from the tallest mountains to


the floor of the deepest ocean.

Thousands of different types of rocks and minerals have


been found on Earth.

Most rocks at the Earth's surface are formed from only


eight elements (oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron,
magnesium, calcium, potassium, and sodium).

These elements are combined in a number of ways to


make rocks that are very different.

Unit-1 26
Rocks are continually changing.

Wind and water wear them down and carry bits of rock
away; the tiny particles accumulate in a lake or ocean and
harden into rock again.

The oldest rock that has ever been found is more than 3.9
billion years old.

The Earth itself is at least 4.5 billion years old, but rocks
from the beginning of Earth's history have changed so much
from their original form that they have become new kinds of
rock.

By studying how rocks form and change, scientists have


built a solid understanding of the Earth.
Unit-1 27
Types of Rocks :

* Igneous rocks

* Sedimentary rocks

* Metamorphic rocks

Unit-1 28
Unit-1 29
Igneous rocks (Fire rocks)

Igneous, from the root word ignite which means to catch fire!

Did you know how an igneous rock is formed?

Under the Earth’s crust is the extremely hot mantle. It is interesting to note
that the coolest outer part of the Earth’s mantle is around 1000°C Celsius
or 1800°F.

The rock in mantle of the Earth is molten, hot, white liquid. Igneous rocks
come from molten magma.

When molten magma cools and crystallizes, an igneous rock is formed.


This event only happens above the ground, like when volcanoes erupt.

Magma immediately cools upon reaching the surface, usually in days or


weeks.

However, when magma forms in pockets underground, it cools more slowly


that could take even million of years.Unit-1 30
Magma is made up of a combination of different elements, some of
which are silica, iron, potassium, aluminum, and magnesium. In
addition, other gasses are present such as oxygen, carbon dioxide,
and sulfur dioxide.

These elements in turn form chemical combinations that crystallize


to form 8 basic rock forming minerals: olivine, quartz, amphibole,
orthoclase, plagioclase, biotite, muscovite, and pyroxene.

Extremely hot molten rock from the deep recesses of the earth
makes its way out and literally ignites everything it comes in contact
with, once the liquid cools down, an igneous rock is formed.

On the surface , the molten magma cools rapidly to become


extrusive igneous rocks.
Unit-1 31
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Unit-1 32
Unit-1 33
Unit-1 34
Sedimentary rocks are formed at the surface of the
Earth, either in water or on land.

They are layered accumulations of sediments: fragments


of rocks, minerals, or animal or plant material.

Temperatures and pressures are low at the Earth's


surface, and sedimentary rocks show this fact by their
appearance and the minerals they contain.

Most sedimentary rocks become cemented together by


minerals and chemicals or are held together by electrical
attraction; some, however, remain loose and unconsolidated.

….Sedimentary rocks Contd…

Unit-1 35
Inter bedded sandstones and
mudstones.

Across the centre of the picture


there are cross sections of mud
cracks in filled by sand.
mudstones
Note how the mud cracks wedge
out in a "V" that points downwards
sandstones

Sedimentary rock
Note that the top of the granite is visibly
weathered.

The line between the granite and the


sedimentary rocks represents a gap in
time of 50 to 150 million years. Near
Cape Town, South Africa.

Granite Rock
Unit-1 36
Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic rocks

Sometimes sedimentary and igneous rocks are subjected


to pressures so intense or heat so high that they are
completely changed. They become metamorphic rocks,
which form while deeply buried within the Earth's crust.

The process of metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but


instead transforms them into denser, more compact rocks.

New minerals are created either by rearrangement of


mineral components or by reactions with fluids that enter the
rocks.

Metamorphic
Unit-1
rocks…contd… 38
Some kinds of metamorphic rocks--granite gneiss and
biotite schist are two examples--are strongly banded or
foliated. (Foliated means the parallel arrangement of certain
mineral grains that gives the rock a striped appearance.)

Pressure or temperature can even change previously


metamorphosed rocks into new types. Common metamorphic
rocks include schist, marble, and gneiss.

Sedimentary rock shale (formed mostly of clay sediments)


when buried and heated to high temperatures (300-500°C)
becomes transformed or metamorphosed into schist.

Unit-1 39
Unit-1 40
Metamorhic Rocks
Metamorhic Rocks

Unit-1 41
GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS : AQUIFERS, AQUITARDS
AND SPRINGS

A geologic formation from which significant amounts of


ground water is known as an aquifer.

Sometimes, aquifers are separated from each other by


geologic formations that permit little or no water to flow in or
out. A formation that acts as such a water barrier is called
aquitard if it is much less permeable than a nearby aquifer
but still permits flow (e.g., sandy clay).

If the water barrier is almost impermeable (e.g., clay) and


forms a strong barrier to flow between aquifers, it is known
as an aquiclude.

Unit-1 42
Unit-1 43
Aquifers can be of two major types:

Unconfined or confined aquifers.

An unconfined aquifer has no overlying aquitard or aquiclude.

Where there are multiple levels of aquifers, the uppermost aquifer


typically is unconfined.

Water table at the top of the unconfined aquifer can move freely up
and down, depending on how much water is added/withdrawn.

Water level in a borehole drilled into an unconfined aquifer will be


at the same depth as the water table in the aquifer.

Unit-1 44
A confined aquifer is sandwiched between an aquitard above
and an aquiclude or aquitard (e.g., bedrock) below .

Because the water table in the recharge area (outcrop) of the


confined aquifer is much higher than the top of the confined
aquifer itself, water in a confined aquifer is under above
atmospheric pressure.

It means that the water level in a borehole drilled into a


confined aquifer will rise significantly above the top of the
aquifer. A flowing artesian well occurs where the pressure is so
high that the water level in a well drilled into the confined
aquifer rises above the land surface—in other words, an open
well flows freely with no pumping.

Unit-1 45
Sometimes hydrogeologists use the term semi-confined
aquifer if an aquifer acts partly like a confined aquifer
(particularly if pumping rates are low or if pumping is
necessary only over a relatively short period of time) and
partly like an unconfined aquifer (for example, after long
periods of heavy pumping).

Perched aquifer: Aquifer of limited extent in an unconfined


aquifer.

Unit-1 46
Springs form where the water table intersects with the land
surface: for example, in a small depression (common on
hillsides).

Sometimes ground water is forced into a spring because a low


permeable layer of rock or fine sediments (clay) keeps the
water from percolating deeper.

A spring may also occur where subsurface pressure forces


water to the surface through a fracture or fault zone that acts
as a conduit for water movement from a confined aquifer.

Unit-1 47
Groundwater Exploration :

In groundwater exploration, it is possible to predict the


location of an unconfined aquifer within alluvial sediments.

However, identifying unconfined alluvial aquifers requires a


detailed knowledge of sediments in the area.

Usually, this information can only be obtained from existing


well-drilling records or from an exploratory drilling program.

Deeper confined aquifers should be investigated if an


unconfined aquifer cannot provide an adequate water supply
or if the unconfined aquifer is contaminated.

Unit-1 48
Rock aquifers should be considered for exploration only
when soil aquifers are not present .

Identifying suitable well sites in rock aquifers is more difficult


than in soil aquifers.

Water development in rock aquifers is more time-consuming


and costly and has a higher risk factor.

However, in some areas, rock aquifers may be the only


source of groundwater.

Unit-1 49
DIRECTION AND SPEED OF GROUNDWATER
MOVEMENT

Ground water moves very slowly from higher


elevations to lower elevations and from locations of
higher pressure to locations of lower pressure.

Important Characteristics influencing availability of


groundwater are:

Porosity

Permeability ( Hydraulic Conductivity)

Unit-1 50
Porosity : (n or f)

- Soil is a three phase system-(solids, voids (air


and water))

- Measure of amount of void space.

- Ratio of volume of voids to total volume of a soil


mass.

- Higher porosity does not mean larger water


yielding formation, as yield depends upon
permeability of soil.

- Primary and secondary porosity in rocks.

Unit-1 51
Primary : During formation itself ( air entrapped in a
rock during cooling of magma, pores may
be isolated or inter connected)

Secondary : Due to natural activities (earth quakes,


settlement of soils.

Due to man-made activities (blasting of


rocks, vibrations due to machinery)

This type of porosity is very large in size and forms a


good aquifer.

Unit-1 52
Permeability or Hydraulic Conductivity :

The ability of geologic material to allow the movement


of groundwater is called permeability or hydraulic
conductivity.

It is measured in cubic metres/ day/ square metre or in


m/day.

The amount of groundwater flow is greater with higher


hydraulic conductivity, even if the hydraulic gradient is
the same.

Unit-1 53
The hydraulic conductivity of sandy or gravelly aquifers ranges
from 3 to 300 m /day. For clays it is very low. ( a small fraction
of that of a sandy aquifer.

For fractured it depends on degree of fracturing. It may be as


high as 0.3 m to 3 m/day.

Unit-1 54
The hydraulic conductivity of fractured rock depends greatly
on the degree of fracturing.

Permeability is expressed in terms of coefficient of


permeability (k) and is determined by either constant head or
falling head methods in laboratory.

Groundwater velocity = hydraulic conductivity x hydraulic


gradient.

That is V = k x i (Darcy’s Law, 1856).

Unit-1 55
But, this is Darcy velocity or specific discharge or bulk
velocity. Seepage velocity ( Vs) is more than bulk
velocity.

Vs = V/n

Groundwater movement is always in the downward


direction of the hydraulic head gradient .

Unit-1 56
Indicators of groundwater resources

Indicators of groundwater resources are those


characteristics that indicate the occurrence of
groundwater.

The types of indicators are:

1. Reservoir indicators

2. Surface indicators

3. Boundary indicators

Unit-1 57
1. Reservoir Indicators

Size, shape, and water-bearing characteristics of a


basin are important in evaluating water resources.

Plants around a dry lake bed are good indicators of


groundwater. But, dry lake beds contain very fine-grained
sediments; wells in these areas usually produce low
water yields and contain poor quality groundwater.

Rock or soil type present could be an indicator as it


defines its water-producing characteristics. In general,
igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks are
encountered.

Reservoir Indicators….
contd

Unit-1 58
Igneous Rocks :These are poor aquifers except where the
rocks have faults or fractures.

In many cases, these rocks are not capable of storing or


transmitting groundwater and will act as a barrier to
groundwater flow.

Groundwater can accumulate


in fractures and move through
the rock if the fractures are
connected.

Most groundwater-bearing
fractures are within 500 feet
of the surface, and drilling
deeper to find water in
igneous rocks is not advised.

Unit-1 Reservoir Indicators…. contd 59


Metamorphic Rocks:

These areas rarely produce sufficient groundwater


and are considered an effective barrier to
groundwater flow.

Metamorphic rocks have poor potential for


groundwater development.

Unit-1 Reservoir Indicators…. contd


60
Sedimentary Rocks:
These have the greatest potential for groundwater
development.

Unfractured sedimentary rocks supply low yields. If fractured,


their yield is high. Sandstone, limestone and shale are
common types of sedimentary rocks.

Sandstone:

If the sand grains are small and tightly cemented together, it


will yield low. If the rock is fractured, it will have a high
yield.

If the sand grains are relatively large and poorly cemented,


moderate to high well yields may be possible.
Unit-1 61
Limestone :

Undisturbed limestones are poor aquifers. Fractured


limestone can be an excellent water source. In some areas of
the world, limestone areas are the principal groundwater
sources.

When groundwater moves through the fractures, it can


dissolve the rock and enlarge the fractures. This process is
called dissolution.

Dissolution allows the rock to


store and transmit greater
volumes of water than other
types of fractured rocks.

Reservoir Indicators…. contd


Unit-1 62
Shale:

Shale does not store much groundwater and does not


transmit large quantities of ground water.

Where fractured, shale generally can only produce a few


gallons per minute.

However, identifying shale units is important because


shales indicate confined aquifers, which are more
productive water-bearing units.

Unit-1 Reservoir Indicators…. contd 63


Alluvium

Soils deposited by running water are called alluvium.

They have maximum pore space, relatively shallow and


are easily penetrated.

Alluvial valleys are one of the most productive regions


of groundwater.

Unit-1 Reservoir Indicators….


64 contd
Stream and coastal terraces:

Stream and coastal terraces usually are underlaid by


gravel or sand deposits. They may be good water sources.

Well drillers must be sure of the possibility of saltwater


intrusion problems when drilling in coastal areas.

Glaciated regions:

Alluvium laid down by


Streams from glaciers
contain a higher
percentage of gravel
and coarse sand.

These are good sources


of groundwater.
Reservoir Indicators…. contd
Unit-1 65
Structure Density:

Geologic structures, such as folds, fractures and faults are


features that disrupt the continuity of rock units.

For groundwater exploration, identifying faults and fractures


is important, especially in rock aquifers.

The ability of rock aquifers to transmit groundwater is


related to the number and size of fractures in the rock.

Density of fractures is an important consideration in


locating well sites in rock terrain. The best potential well
sites are located at the intersection of fracture zones.

Unit-1 Reservoir Indicators…. 66


contd
Grain Size and Sorting:

The grain size and sorting of an aquifer are related to


the porosity and permeability of the aquifer and the
production capability of the aquifer.

Fine-grained materials (clay) have a high porosity but a


very low permeability and are poor aquifers.

Sands have porosity (about half that of clay) and high


permeability and are usually productive aquifers.

Unit-1 67
Lithification:

Process by which sediments are converted to rock by


compaction, consolidation and cementation.

They affect porosity and permeability of an aquifer.

Drainage Basin Size :

Groundwater is derived from the infiltration of


precipitation over a basin, the size of basin can help to
assess the overall groundwater potential.

Large drainage basins may receive more precipitation


and have a larger groundwater supply than smaller
basins. It is true where precipitation is same over a
region.
Reservoir Indicators…. contd

Unit-1 68
Landforms:

Landforms can provide information related to


water depth, well-production potential, and water quality.
Table: Land forms and hydrogeologic characteristics
Land forms Hydrogeologic Characteristics
Mountains Mountains are recharge areas and
locations of flow system boundaries
Plains River flood plains are discharge areas,
have poor quality water.
Wind-formed Wind formed features indicate deposition
features of fine sediments. They lack of recharge
and very low groundwater potential.
Confined aquifers may exist.
Water formed Deltas and alluvial plains are recharge
features areas for surface runoff.
Man-made features Man made lakes and pits are recharge
areas.
69
Unit-1
Reservoir Indicators…. contd
Elevation :

Elevation provides an idea of the amount of


groundwater replenishment within a drainage basin
and its groundwater potential.

Zones of higher elevation receive more precipitation


than lower areas.

A small drainage basin at a high elevation may


receive appreciably more recharge from precipitation
than a much larger basin at a lower elevation.

Reservoir Indicators…. contd

Unit-1 70
2. Boundary Indicators

By identifying the boundaries, it is possible to define


directions of groundwater flow and to estimate the
depth and quality of groundwater within an area.

Recharge Areas:

Recharge into rock fractures in mountainous areas is


done from the surface runoff.

Recharge of groundwater from surface water sources


results in a mound (bulge) in the surface of the
groundwater.

Unit-1 71
Areas recharged by direct infiltration usually contain good
quality groundwater.

Groundwater under lakes may exhibit poor water quality


because evaporation of lake water may increase the
concentration of chemicals.

Unit-1 72
Discharge Areas:

Groundwater discharge occurs in streams and lakes through


consumption by plants or man. The location of discharge
areas can help identify areas of shallow groundwater.

The location of subsurface discharge areas requires more


detailed knowledge of the hydrologic balance of the area.

Surface-Water Divides:

Surface-water divides can form boundaries between


groundwater flow systems. The mounding of groundwater
causes groundwater to flow away from the recharge area.

The identification of surface-water divides can help define


groundwater flow systems.

Boundary Indicators…contd

Unit-1 73
3. Surface Indicators:

Surface indicators are those features that suggest the


presence of groundwater.

These indicators provide information about the depth,


quantity and quality of the groundwater resources in
an area.

Springs :

These are usually good indicators of the presence of


shallow groundwater occurrences.

Faults, valley-depressions and alluvial springs may


discharge appreciable quantities of groundwater.

Unit-1 74
Vegetation Type: Some plants (phreatophytes) can only
exist if their root systems are in direct contact with
groundwater.

Phreatophytes have roots more than 100 feet depth. Shrubs


have roots that penetrate only a few feet and make them
excellent indicators of shallow groundwater.

The density of vegetation can help define the location of


recharge and discharge areas. Dense stands of vegetation
along stream channels are riparian vegetation.

Unit-1 75
Snow-Melt Patterns: Snow packed in
mountainous areas is usually a good source of
recharge because slowly melting snow
produces more infiltration than rainfall.

Population Distribution: Population distribution


in arid regions is closely related to water
availability. Population centers in arid
environments without surface water are usually
good indicators of groundwater supplies.

Unit-1 76
Streams and Rivers: Streams and rivers are recharge areas
or discharge areas.

Streams often migrate over large areas of the valley floor and
deposit mixtures of gravel, sand, silt and clay.

Older, buried stream channels may be better aquifers


because they are composed of coarser subgrade materials
and much of the surface contamination has been filtered out.

Surface Indicators ..contd

Unit-1 77
Wetlands: Wetlands such as marshes and
swamps are indicative of very shallow
groundwater.

The presence of wetlands is an excellent


indicator of groundwater. However, wetlands
generally are not suitable for water-well
locations because of low permeability and poor
water quality.

Unit-1 78
Karst Topography : Karst topography results from the
dissolution of carbonate rocks by groundwater and is
characterized by caves.

These features indicate that the rock has a very high


dissolution potential and that groundwater is present.

Wells : One of the best indicators of groundwater is


groundwater development with well systems. Water
wells are difficult to detect, especially from imagery.

It is possible to detect wells indirectly from irrigation


patterns. Irrigation patterns are distinctive and are good
indicators of groundwater.

Unit-1 Surface Indicators…contd 79


Crop Irrigation: Crop irrigation indicates the use of
surface or groundwater for agriculture.

In most arid environments, surface-water-based


irrigation is located adjacent to streams and rivers.
Beyond the river floodplains, agriculture is negligible.

Agricultural development in areas without surface water


is a good indicator of the presence of groundwater at
relatively shallow depths.

Reservoirs and Lakes: Surface water bodies can be


groundwater recharge, or discharge.

Unit-1 80
Climate and Groundwater

What is Climate Change?

Change of climate, attributed directly or indirectly to


human activity that alters composition of global
atmosphere and is in addition to natural climate
variability observed over comparable time periods.

Groundwater is the primary source of water for more


than 1.5 billion people worldwide.

Due to increasing population and diminishing water


supplies researchers are placing more emphasis on
groundwater analysis.

Unit-1 81
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With climate change, it is important to understand the
relationship between climate and groundwater.

Changes in groundwater availability affects availability of


water different uses, water quality and pumping costs.

Climate change affects geologic processes such as


genesis, ore mineralization, regional hydrologic systems,
(alters runoff, soil moisture storage, evaporation,
transpiration, lake levels, aquifer levels, stream flow and
water quality).

Surface temperature from 1906 to 2005 is found to warm


up 0.74°C (likely range 0.56 to 0.92°C), with a more rapid
warming trend over the past 50 years.

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With climate change, extreme weather phenomena such
as droughts and floods are becoming more common.

During drought, due to decreased stream flow,


dependence on groundwater increases.

.
Depletion of groundwater may be the most substantial
threat to irrigated agriculture and pollution, exceeding
even the build up of salts in soils.

For many small island states, seawater intrusion into


freshwater aquifers has been observed as a result of
over pumping of aquifers. Sea-level rise would worsen
the situation.

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The greater variability in rainfall means more
frequent and prolonged periods of high or low
groundwater levels, and saline intrusion in coastal
aquifers due to sea level rise and resource
reduction.

Climate change also affects soil characteristics


through cracking, which in turn affects soil
moisture storage properties.

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Groundwater resources are related to climate
change through the direct interaction with surface
water resources, such as lakes and rivers, and
indirectly through the recharge process.

The direct effect of climate change on groundwater


resources depends upon the change in the volume
and distribution of groundwater recharge.

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Analysis of impact of climate change on
groundwater is difficult and imprecise as little
numerical information is available.

While a model might accurately reflect the climate-


groundwater relationship for one area, it could be
entirely ineffective in another location.

Long term climatic effects must be considered


when analyzing groundwater systems over long
periods of time.

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Studies showed that groundwater systems were
unaffected by climate change over short periods of time,
such as ten to twenty years.

It would be useful to apply the same models to a


longer period of time, perhaps a hundred or two hundred
years.

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Climate Change Scenario for Groundwater in India

Due to rampant drawing of the subsurface water, the


water table in many regions of the country has
dropped significantly in the recent years resulting in
threat to groundwater sustainability.

The most optimistic assumption suggests that an


average drop in groundwater level by one metre would
increase India’s total carbon emissions by over 1%,
because withdrawal of the same amount of water from
deeper depths will increase fuel consumption.

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Climate change affects groundwater due to changes in
precipitation and evapotranspiration.

Rising sea levels may lead to increased saline intrusion


into coastal and island aquifers, while increased
frequency and severity of floods may affect
groundwater quality in alluvial aquifers. For two small
islands at the coast of India, the thickness of
freshwater lens was computed to decrease from 25 m
to 10 m and from 36 m to 28 m respectively, for a sea
level rise of only 0.1 m.

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Irrigation demand, which is a major share of
total water demand of the country, is considered
more sensitive to climate change. A change in
field-level climate may alter the need and timing
of irrigation.

In India, roughly 52% of irrigation consumption


across the country is extracted from
groundwater; therefore, it can be an alarming
situation with decline in groundwater and
increase in irrigation requirements due to
climate change.

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Groundwater provinces of India

Groundwater is a precious and the most widely distributed


resource of the earth. Groundwater is the largest source of
fresh water.

The amount of groundwater within 800 m from the ground


surface is over 30 times the amount of fresh water lakes
and reservoirs, and about 3000 times the amount in
streams etc.,.

At present 1/5 of the water used in the world is from


groundwater only.

The present irrigated area in India is 60 Mha of which 40%


is from groundwater only.

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The a.a.r of India is 114 cm, which is estimated to be
equal to 370 M Ha-m.

1/3 is lost as evaporation.

Of the remaining 247 M Ha-m, 167 M Ha-m goes as


runoff, 80 M Ha-m goes into the subsoil.

Of this 80 M Ha-m, 43 M Ha-m is stored in top layers of


soil to makeup soil moisture. The finally remaining 37
M Ha-m goes to ground water.

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Mohanjodaro excavations indicated dug wells.( 3000 BC)

Writings of Vishnu Kautilya – groundwater is used for


irrigation

Vedic times – sinking of wells

1903 – First Irrigation Commission – stressed importance of


irrigation wells.

1934 – a project – to construct 1500 community wells in UP –


In Ganga Basin – successful.

1944 – above project converted to Sub-Soil Water section –


later converted to Central Groundwater Org. – Established a
Central Drilling School in Roorkee.

Exploratory Tube well Org (ETO) was set up in 1954 – later


converted to CGWB in 1970. This is the apex body at National
level.
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•Springs in the Himalayan High lands : All types of rocks
are present. Granites, basalts, sandstones, limestone, shale,
conglomerates, slates, quartzite, gneiss, schist, marble,
Favourable sites for springs – thickness of aquifers 30m,
TDS<500 ppm

•Freshwater sediments in Kashmir : Kashmir valley was a


vast lake – glacial deposits – 600 m thick

•Indo – Gangetic alluvium : Coarse sands, gravel, boulders –


3 to 60 m thick- large fresh water reservoirs – TDS < 400
ppm.

•Caostal alluvium : Near Malabar - 15 -150 m thick- 12- 50


m3/Hr. low TDS, water is with carbonaceous clay, Saline
intrusions are noticed upto 25 -40 km.

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• Areas in Gujarat – Sandstones - nearly 50 million years ago –
moderately potential aquifers – 100 -300 m deep – 10 to 120
cum/hr –
TDS 2000-5000 ppm

•Region in Rajasthan – Sandstones - 65 to 2456 million years ago


– Moderately potential – 100 – 150 m thick – 45 to 150 cum/hr –
saline –TDS 1000 – 5000 ppm

•Region in Jodhpur : Lime stones - Potential aquifers – 40 -70


cum/hr potable water - TDS < 200 ppm - Fractured upto 150 m.

•Doonvalley gravels : Boulders , pebbles, gravel, sand, clay- major


portion of the valley is hilly and sloping – yield 150 cum/hr,
thickness 150 to 200m TDS 100 to 500 ppm.

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•Alluvium : Narmada, Tapti, Chamba, Mahanadi river basins-
Thickness 75 to 150 m - tube well yield 20 – 150 cum/hr, good
quality , TDS 100-500 ppm

•Deccan traps : Vesicular basalts,


in Maharashtra and MP,
good aquifers, groundwater in
confined and unconfined aquifers
, 10 to 40 cum/hr.
: Vesicular basalts

•Carbonate rocks with solution cavities : in MP, Carbonate


rocks with interconnecting solution channels and caverns ,
10-60 cum/hr.

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Alluvium in Palar, Araniyar rivers in TN : Form
potential aquifers, good quality, Cl < 250 ppm, EC
750 – 2000 micro Mhos/ cm.

Sediments of Cauvery : Sediments in Tanjore


and south Arcot form good aquifers, Thickness
200m, Tube wells have free flow.

Thermal and mineralsprings : They are found in


many parts of India – Mumbai, Bihar, Punjab,
Assam and the foot hills of Himalayas and
Kashmir.

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Sandstones and pebble beds in Godavari-Krishna
interstream area : Form potential aquifers with
confined conditions, Near Muppavarm the
piezometric surface is 19 m above the land
surface and falls towards the coast at a gradient
of 4 to 25 m/km. Thickness 3 to 184 m Yield 20 to
120 cum/hr. good quality, TDS 1800 to 15,000 ppm

Sediments of West Bengal : Depth 140 m, fresh


water.

Granitic gneisses and schists of Karnataka : Yield


is very low. Bore well drilled to 30 to 75 m depth
yields 5 cum/hr.

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•Upper Gondwana and alluvial tract of Orissa : Potential
aquifers, 28 cm of rainfall is assumed as recharge, Usually
drawdown is 7m.

In the alluvial tract where granular aquifer material are


available, the wells are capable of irrigating 2 to 2.5 ha of
land in Kharif and 1 to 1.25 Ha in Rabi Season.

It is estimated that 65% of the


ground water potential
of the state can be developed
through open wells.

Gondwana region
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