Hydrogeology :
Groundwater in sediments
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In California, rural areas’ dependence on ground water is
even greater.
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WHAT IS GROUND WATER?
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Ground water is water that fills pores and fractures in the ground.
Between the water table and the land surface is the unsaturated
zone or vadose zone.
The water table can be very close to the surface (within a few
m), or very deep (up to several hundred m).
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Groundwater has many benefits.
Some areas near the surface may not be saturated with water
and only have an intermittent supply of water.
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When we draw groundwater from deep aquifer supplies, we
are tapping into water locked away under the surface and
filtered through layer upon layer of soil.
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Hydrogeology (hydro- meaning water, and -geology meaning
the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with
the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and
rocks of the Earth's crust, (commonly in aquifers).
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What is Hydrogeology?
Geology means the study of rocks and the structures that are
formed over vast periods of time.
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Hydrogeology looks at how water interacts with geological
systems.
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Early theories :
Aristotle : Air enters under the cold dark caverns under the
mountains where it is condensed into water and contributes to
the springs. All Romans ,except Vitrivious, had the same
opinion.
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KANAT – A HORIZONTAL TUNNEL INTO THE HILLS , WITH VERTICAL WELLS
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Why is Hydrogeology important?
Some parts of the world are blessed with frequent rainfall and
plentiful surface water resources, but most countries need to use
the water that is stored underground to supplement their needs.
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Taking into account the interplay of the different facets of a
multi-component system often requires knowledge in several
diverse fields at both the experimental and theoretical levels.
* Earth sciences
* Civil Engineering, Hydrology& Fluid mechanics
* Electrical and Mechanical Engineering
* Mathematics
* Physics and Chemistry
* Petrolium and chemical Engineering
* Economics and Finance
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Hydrogeology deals with the flow of water through aquifers
and other shallow porous formations.
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The mathematical relationships used to describe the flow of
groundwater are the diffusion and Laplace equations, which
have applications in many diverse fields.
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Traditionally, the movement of groundwater has been
studied separately from surface water, climatology, and even
the chemical and microbiological aspects of hydrogeology.
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Earth is formed from a cloud of dust and gas drifting
through space about 4600 million years ago.
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There are four main
layers:
Inner core,
Outer core
Mantle
Crust (layer near
the surface of the
earth).
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Rocks
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Rocks are continually changing.
Wind and water wear them down and carry bits of rock
away; the tiny particles accumulate in a lake or ocean and
harden into rock again.
The oldest rock that has ever been found is more than 3.9
billion years old.
The Earth itself is at least 4.5 billion years old, but rocks
from the beginning of Earth's history have changed so much
from their original form that they have become new kinds of
rock.
* Igneous rocks
* Sedimentary rocks
* Metamorphic rocks
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Igneous rocks (Fire rocks)
Igneous, from the root word ignite which means to catch fire!
Under the Earth’s crust is the extremely hot mantle. It is interesting to note
that the coolest outer part of the Earth’s mantle is around 1000°C Celsius
or 1800°F.
The rock in mantle of the Earth is molten, hot, white liquid. Igneous rocks
come from molten magma.
Extremely hot molten rock from the deep recesses of the earth
makes its way out and literally ignites everything it comes in contact
with, once the liquid cools down, an igneous rock is formed.
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Inter bedded sandstones and
mudstones.
Sedimentary rock
Note that the top of the granite is visibly
weathered.
Granite Rock
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Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic
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rocks…contd… 38
Some kinds of metamorphic rocks--granite gneiss and
biotite schist are two examples--are strongly banded or
foliated. (Foliated means the parallel arrangement of certain
mineral grains that gives the rock a striped appearance.)
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Metamorhic Rocks
Metamorhic Rocks
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GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS : AQUIFERS, AQUITARDS
AND SPRINGS
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Aquifers can be of two major types:
Water table at the top of the unconfined aquifer can move freely up
and down, depending on how much water is added/withdrawn.
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A confined aquifer is sandwiched between an aquitard above
and an aquiclude or aquitard (e.g., bedrock) below .
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Sometimes hydrogeologists use the term semi-confined
aquifer if an aquifer acts partly like a confined aquifer
(particularly if pumping rates are low or if pumping is
necessary only over a relatively short period of time) and
partly like an unconfined aquifer (for example, after long
periods of heavy pumping).
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Springs form where the water table intersects with the land
surface: for example, in a small depression (common on
hillsides).
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Groundwater Exploration :
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Rock aquifers should be considered for exploration only
when soil aquifers are not present .
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DIRECTION AND SPEED OF GROUNDWATER
MOVEMENT
Porosity
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Porosity : (n or f)
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Primary : During formation itself ( air entrapped in a
rock during cooling of magma, pores may
be isolated or inter connected)
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Permeability or Hydraulic Conductivity :
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The hydraulic conductivity of sandy or gravelly aquifers ranges
from 3 to 300 m /day. For clays it is very low. ( a small fraction
of that of a sandy aquifer.
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The hydraulic conductivity of fractured rock depends greatly
on the degree of fracturing.
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But, this is Darcy velocity or specific discharge or bulk
velocity. Seepage velocity ( Vs) is more than bulk
velocity.
Vs = V/n
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Indicators of groundwater resources
1. Reservoir indicators
2. Surface indicators
3. Boundary indicators
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1. Reservoir Indicators
Reservoir Indicators….
contd
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Igneous Rocks :These are poor aquifers except where the
rocks have faults or fractures.
Most groundwater-bearing
fractures are within 500 feet
of the surface, and drilling
deeper to find water in
igneous rocks is not advised.
Sandstone:
Glaciated regions:
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Lithification:
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Landforms:
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2. Boundary Indicators
Recharge Areas:
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Areas recharged by direct infiltration usually contain good
quality groundwater.
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Discharge Areas:
Surface-Water Divides:
Boundary Indicators…contd
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3. Surface Indicators:
Springs :
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Vegetation Type: Some plants (phreatophytes) can only
exist if their root systems are in direct contact with
groundwater.
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Snow-Melt Patterns: Snow packed in
mountainous areas is usually a good source of
recharge because slowly melting snow
produces more infiltration than rainfall.
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Streams and Rivers: Streams and rivers are recharge areas
or discharge areas.
Streams often migrate over large areas of the valley floor and
deposit mixtures of gravel, sand, silt and clay.
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Wetlands: Wetlands such as marshes and
swamps are indicative of very shallow
groundwater.
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Karst Topography : Karst topography results from the
dissolution of carbonate rocks by groundwater and is
characterized by caves.
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Climate and Groundwater
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With climate change, it is important to understand the
relationship between climate and groundwater.
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With climate change, extreme weather phenomena such
as droughts and floods are becoming more common.
.
Depletion of groundwater may be the most substantial
threat to irrigated agriculture and pollution, exceeding
even the build up of salts in soils.
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The greater variability in rainfall means more
frequent and prolonged periods of high or low
groundwater levels, and saline intrusion in coastal
aquifers due to sea level rise and resource
reduction.
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Groundwater resources are related to climate
change through the direct interaction with surface
water resources, such as lakes and rivers, and
indirectly through the recharge process.
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Analysis of impact of climate change on
groundwater is difficult and imprecise as little
numerical information is available.
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Studies showed that groundwater systems were
unaffected by climate change over short periods of time,
such as ten to twenty years.
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Climate Change Scenario for Groundwater in India
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Climate change affects groundwater due to changes in
precipitation and evapotranspiration.
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Irrigation demand, which is a major share of
total water demand of the country, is considered
more sensitive to climate change. A change in
field-level climate may alter the need and timing
of irrigation.
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Groundwater provinces of India
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The a.a.r of India is 114 cm, which is estimated to be
equal to 370 M Ha-m.
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Mohanjodaro excavations indicated dug wells.( 3000 BC)
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• Areas in Gujarat – Sandstones - nearly 50 million years ago –
moderately potential aquifers – 100 -300 m deep – 10 to 120
cum/hr –
TDS 2000-5000 ppm
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•Alluvium : Narmada, Tapti, Chamba, Mahanadi river basins-
Thickness 75 to 150 m - tube well yield 20 – 150 cum/hr, good
quality , TDS 100-500 ppm
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Alluvium in Palar, Araniyar rivers in TN : Form
potential aquifers, good quality, Cl < 250 ppm, EC
750 – 2000 micro Mhos/ cm.
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Sandstones and pebble beds in Godavari-Krishna
interstream area : Form potential aquifers with
confined conditions, Near Muppavarm the
piezometric surface is 19 m above the land
surface and falls towards the coast at a gradient
of 4 to 25 m/km. Thickness 3 to 184 m Yield 20 to
120 cum/hr. good quality, TDS 1800 to 15,000 ppm
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•Upper Gondwana and alluvial tract of Orissa : Potential
aquifers, 28 cm of rainfall is assumed as recharge, Usually
drawdown is 7m.
Gondwana region
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