BCE 6109 Mobile Computing

Unit 1
Introduction

DR. GEETA GANDHI

Associate professor

© iNurture Education Solutions Pvt. Ltd., INDIA. 2014-15. All rights reserved
Unit 1 – Introduction
I. Introduction to unit
II. A Simplified refernce model
III. Frequencies for radio transmission
IV. Signals
V. Antennas
VI. Signal Propagation
VII. Multiplexing
VIII.SpreadSpectrum
IX. Cellular system
X. Conclusion of Unit
 I. Introduction to unit

© iNurture Education Solutions Pvt. Ltd., INDIA. 2014-15. All rights reserved
Introduction to Computer Networks

Computer network connects

two or more autonomous
computers.

The computers can be

geographically located
anywhere.
LAN, MAN & WAN

Network in a small geographical Area (Room, Building or a

Campus) is called LAN (Local Area Network)

Network in a City is called MAN (Metropolitan Area

Network)

Network spread geographically (Country or across Globe) is

called WAN (Wide Area Network)
Applications of Networks

Resource Sharing
Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
Software (application software)
Information Sharing
Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
Search Capability (WWW)
Communication
Email
Message broadcast
 Wireless Commmunication Principles
• A basic telecommunication system consists of three
primary elements that are always present in some form:

Transmission
Transmitter Receiver
medium

• Takes • Physical channel • Takes signal from

information • Carries the channel
• Converts signals • Converts signal
information to to information
signals

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Radio Communication

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Radio Communication

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Radio Communication

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Radio Communication

• Radio waves does not rely on a physical connectivity

• Radio wave's frequency is between 1 GHz and 3 GHz
• At low frequency, radio waves can pass through obstacles
• At high frequency, radio waves travel in a straight line and will bounce off
obstacles.

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Different Generations
• 1G – AMPS
• FDMA Based /Analog Signals
• Uplink (Reverse ) channel frequencies 824-849 MHz
• Downlink (Forward ) channel frequencies 869-894 MHz
• Data transmission rate 10Kbps
• 2G (TDMA/CDMA)
•

GSM IS-95
1990 1993
TDMA CDMA
890-915MHz(Uplink ) 824-849 MHz
935-960 MHz(Downlink) 869-894 MHz

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Different Generations
• 2.5 G
• GPRS ( General Packet Radio Service )
• Speed 64-144 Kbps
• EDGE (Enhanced Data Rate for Global Evolution)
• HSCSD( High Speed Circuit Switched Data )
• iDEN(Integrated Digital Enhanced Network)
• 3G
• Year 2000
• UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System )
• 144Kbps to 2Mbps
• WCDMA

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Different Generations

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2. A Simplified refernce model
 Communication Model
Basic wireless communication model are:

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Analog and Digital Communication

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3. Frequencies for radio transmission
Frequencies for Radio Transmission

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Extremely Low Frequency (ELF)
• Frequency starting from 3Hz to 3 KHz is known as
extremely low frequency or ELF range in electromagnetic
spectrum.
• This range is highly vulnerable to disturbance and easily
gets distorted by atmospheric changes.
• It is hard to design a system in this rage is challenging
because of the larger wavelengths required long
antennas which are practically impossible to achieve.
• Scientists use this frequency band in seismic studies to
understand natural activities in earth’s atmosphere.

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Very Low Frequency (VLF)
• Very low frequency is the starting range of RF and
practical radio transmission system which span from 3
KHz to 30 KHz.
• However, design and implementation of the antenna
system is extremely complicated due to the wavelength.
• It has been using in submarines and still used in time
radio station which synchronizes clock signals between
two remote locations.

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Low Frequency (LF)
• Low frequency is in the range of 30 KHz to 300 KHz.
• One of the important properties of LF signals is that it will get
reflected by earth’s ionosphere and thus it is suitable for long
distance communication.
• Since it’s long wavelength and less attenuation from big terrains like
mountains, it is generally called ground waves.
• Low frequency signals are used by amateur radio operators; it is
one of the most important sources of information transfer when
other kind of communication sources fails during some situation like
natural disasters.
• Other areas are military applications like sub marines, low
frequency radio broadcasting.

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Medium Frequency (MF)
• Medium frequency was one of the most popular frequency
bands since the beginning of wireless radio transmission in the
early nineteenth century.
• MF operates in the range of 300 KHz to 3 MHz.
• Design of transmitters, receivers and antenna are relatively
less complex than other high frequency transmission bands.
• MF has been widely using in AM radio transmission,
navigation systems for ships and aircraft, cost guards and
other experimental applications.

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High Frequency (HF)
• High frequency signals ranges between 3 MHz and 30 Mhz.
• This frequency band is also known as short wave.
• It also gets reflected by earth’s ionosphere and it is one of the
suitable band for long distance communication.
• High frequency band is mostly used by aviation industry,
government systems, amateur radio operators and weather
broadcasting stations.

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Very High Frequency (VHF)
• Very high frequency is one of the most commonly used bands
which has an operating range from 30 MHz to 300 MHz.
• VHF frequency is widely used in analog TV broadcasting since
it has started few decades back.
• FM radio broadcasting at 88 MHz to 108 MHz operates in VHF
frequency band.
• Another uses includes private and business radio station,
medical equipment (magnetic resonance imaging), amateur
radio and military applications.
• It usually affected by big terrains but suitable for short
distance communication.

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Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
• Ultra high frequency is the most important frequency bands
for modern wireless communication systems.
• It begins from 300 MHz to 3 GHz and extremely complicated
to design and implement the system.
• It has many sub frequency bands, some are restricted and
assigned only for particular applications.
• It is used in GPS navigation systems, satellites, pagers, Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, television broadcasting, and most importantly
GSM, CDMA and LTE mobile transmission.

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Super High Frequency (SHF)
• Super high frequency is in the range of 3 GHz to 30 GHz.
• It can only operate in line of sight path since any obstruction in
between the transmitter and receiving station will break the
communication.
• It is commonly used in point to point communication, satellite
systems, digital TV broadcasting in Ku band (DTH service –
direct to home), Wi-Fi (5GHz channel), microwave ovens and
mobile networks.

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Extremely High Frequency
(EHF)
• Extremely high frequency band is the highest in RF frequency
spectrum which range between 30 GHz and 300 GHz.
• EHF is only used in advanced communication systems due to
its complex nature and line of sight requirement.
• EHF is used in radio astronomy and remote sensing (weather
analysis).
• It is suggested to use for high speed internet systems like 5G
technology for future transmission networks due to large
bandwidth availability.

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4. Signals
 Signal - Analog and Digital
• An analog signal is one in which the signal is varied continuously with respect to the
information.

• In a digital signal, the information is encoded as a set of discrete values (for example, a
set of ones and zeros).

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 Signal - Analog and Digital
BASIS FOR COMPARISON ANALOG SIGNAL DIGITAL SIGNAL

Basic An analog signal is a continuous A digital signal is a discrete wave

wave that changes over a time that carries information in binary
period. form.
Representation An analog signal is represented by a A digital signal is represented by
sine wave. square waves.

Description An analog signal is described by the A digital signal is described by bit

amplitude, period or frequency, and rate and bit intervals.
phase.

Range Analog signal has no fixed range. Digital signal has a finite range i.e.
between 0 and 1.

Distortion An analog signal is more prone to A digital signal is less prone to

distortion. distortion.

Transmit An analog signal transmit data in the A digital signal carries data in the
form of a wave. binary form i.e. 0 nad 1.

Example The human voice is the best Signals used for transmission in a
example of an analog signal. computer are the digital signal.

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 Modulation
Modulation is a process of mixing a signal with a sinusoid to produce a new signal. This
new signal, conceivably, will have certain benefits over an un-modulated signal.

f(t) = A sin (ὠt + ϕ)

we can see that this sinusoid has 3 parameters that can be altered, to affect the shape of
the graph. The first term, A, is called the magnitude, or amplitude of the sinusoid. The next

term, ὠ is known as the frequency, and the last term, ϕ is known as the phase angle. All
3 parameters can be altered to transmit data.

A sinusoidal radio wave used for communication is referred to as a carrier. The carrier
conveys no information on its own, but information can be superimposed on the carrier;
this process is known as carrier modulation.

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Modulation
• Modulation involves some features of the carrier being varied as a function of the
information is transmitted.
• Information is typically transmitted over a medium by superimposing an analog
signal on a sinusoidal carrier using one of the following analog modulation
techniques:
•

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Modulation
Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Frequency Modulation conveys information over a carrier by varying its
frequency.

Phase Modulation (PM)

• Phase Modulation represents information as variations in the instantaneous
phase of a carrier

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Modulation

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Type of Modulation

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5. Antennas
Antenna
An Antenna converts electromagnetic radiation into electric current , or
vice versa.

Antennas come in all shapes and sizes from little ones that can be found
on your roof to watch TV to really big ones that capture signals from
satellites millions of miles away.

Need of Antenna

• For transmission and reception of the radio signal

• Antennas are required by any radio receiver or transmitter to
couple its electric connection to the electromagnetic field.

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Type of Antennas
Log Periodic Antennas
Bow Tie Antennas
Log-Periodic Dipole Array

Wire Antennas
Short Dipole Antenna
Dipole Antenna
Monopole Antenna
Loop Antenna
Travelling Wave Antennas
Helical Antennas
Yagi-Uda Antennas
Microwave Antennas
Rectangular Micro strip Antennas
Planar Inverted-F Antennas
Reflector Antennas
Corner Reflector
Parabolic Reflector

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Log Periodic Antennas
Bow Tie Antennas
Butterfly antenna
It is an omnidirectional wide-band
antenna

Log-Periodic Dipole Array

It comprises a number of dipole
elements.
These dipole-array antennas reduce
in size from the back end to the
front end.

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Wire Antennas
Short Dipole Antenna
The short dipole antenna is made up of
two co-linear conductors that are
placed end to end, with a small gap
between conductors by a feeder. A
Dipole is considered as short if the
length of the radiating element is less
than a tenth of the wavelength.
L<λ/10
Dipole Antenna
The dipole antenna consists of two
metallic rods through which current
and frequency flow.
Monopole Antenna
A monopole antenna is half of a
simple dipole antenna located over
a grounded plane

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 Loop Antenna
Loop antennas are available in different shapes like
circular, elliptical, rectangular, etc.

The fundamental characteristics of the loop antenna

are independent of its shape.

They are widely used in communication links with the

frequency of around 3 GHz.

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 Travelling Wave Antennas
Helical Antennas
Helical antennas are also known as helix
antennas.
They have relatively simple structures
with one, two or more wires each wound
to form a helix, usually backed by a
ground plane or shaped reflector and
driven by an appropriate feed.
The most common design is a single wire
backed by the ground and fed with a coaxial line.
Yagi-Uda Antenna
Yagi antennas can be made by using an
antenna with one reflector, a driven
folded-dipole active element, and
directors, mounted for horizontal
polarization in the forward direction.

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 Microwave Antennas
The antennas operating at microwave frequencies
Rectangular Micro strip Antennas
For spacecraft or aircraft applications – based on the
specifications such as size, weight, cost, performance,
ease of installation, etc. – low profile antennas are
preferred.

Planar Inverted-F Antennas

In this antenna the wire radiating element is replaced
by a plate to increase the bandwidth.
The advantage is that they can reduce the backward
radiation towards the top of the antenna by absorbing
power, which enhances the efficiency.
They provides high gain in both horizontal and vertical
states.

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 Reflector Antennas

Corner Reflector Antenna

The antenna that comprises one or more dipole
elements placed in front of a corner reflector, is known
as corner-reflector antenna.The directivity of any
antenna can be increased by using reflectors.

Parabolic-Reflector Antenna
The radiating surface of a parabolic antenna has very
large.
One of the useful properties of this antenna is the
conversion of a diverging spherical wavefront into
parallel wave front that produces a narrow beam of the
antenna.

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 Properties of Antennas

• Antenna Gain

• Aperture

• Directivity and bandwidth

• Polarization

• Effective length

• Polar diagram

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6. Signal Propagation
 Signal Propagation

Wireless transmissions propagate in three modes. They are −

Ground-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
Line-of-sight propagation

Ground wave propagation follows the contour of the earth. In this propagation the
signal wave is parallel to ground.
Ground wave propagation is used for transmitting low frequency signals.
In this propagation the signal wave is parallel to ground.
While this transmission there is oscillation of wave, so they induce another wave in
the surface of the earth as in figure.

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 Ground wave propagation

Advantages

As the ground wave propagation support large wavelength, the wave can bend
round the corners/obstructions more efficiently.

Disadvantages

Ground wave propagation can only be used for short range.

As it is amplitude modulated, it gathers noise while transmission.

As the frequency range is also small only a limited number of transmitters can be
used.

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 Signal Propagation

Sky wave propagation uses reflection by both earth and ionosphere.

The frequency range for sky wave propagation is from 3 MHz to 32 MHz

The phenomenon responsible for sky wave propagation is reflection due to

ionosphere and the type of reflection is total internal reflection.

Advantages

Sky wave propagation can be used for long distance communication.

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 Signal Propagation

Line of sight propagation requires the transmitting and receiving antennas to be

within the line of sight of each other.

Depending upon the frequency of the underlying signal, the particular mode of
propagation is followed.

Examples of ground wave and sky wave communication are AM

radio and international broadcasts such as BBC.

Above 30 MHz, neither ground wave nor sky wave propagation operates and the
communication is through line of sight.

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7. Multiplexing
Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is a technique which makes it possible to combine several
channels (each capable of supporting an independent connection) into the
same physical channel or line.
• Multiple signals or messages may be transmitted through multiplexing. The
objective of multiplexing is to reduce costs by better utilising the capacity
of a line
• Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of
transmission can be simultaneously processed over a shared link.
• Multiplexing divides the high capacity medium into low capacity logical
medium which is then shared by different streams.
• When multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device called
Multiplexer divides the physical channel and allocates one to each.

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Multiplexing
Type of Multiplexing

• Frequency Division Multiplexing

• Time Division Multiplexing

• Code Division Multiplexing

On the other end of communication, a De-multiplexer

receives data from a single medium, identifies each, and
sends to different receivers.

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Multiplexing
• Time Division Multiplexing / Time Division Multiple Access: In TDM, each
channel is allocated a time slot to transmit over a shared physical channel.
For example, each channel may be given a 5 millisecond time slot to
transmit, during which it will have the entire bandwidth of the line to itself.
TDM requires special multiplexing/de-multiplexing hardware (MUX) at
either end of the line.

k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

c
f

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Multiplexing
• Frequency Division Multiplexing / Frequency Division Multiple Access:
In FDM, the available bandwidth of the line is divided into a number of
partitions, each of which is used as a separate channel. Radio and TV
broadcasting represent the oldest examples of FDM. To avoid neighbouring
channels from interfering with one another, the extreme ends of the channel
frequencies are left unused to provide a gap. For example, a line that has a
bandwidth of 30 kHz can be divided into 3 times 10 kHz channels, each of
which consists of 8 kHz of bandwidth for data and two gaps of 1 kHz on
either side

k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
c
f

t
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8. Spread Spectrum
 Spread Spectrum
Spread spectrum is a technique used for transmitting radio or telecommunications signals.
The term refers to the practice of spreading the transmitted signal to occupy the frequency spectrum
available for transmission.
Spread Spectrum refers to a system originally developed for military applications, to provide secure
communications by spreading the signal over a large frequency band.

These narrowband signals are easily jammed by any other signal in the same band. Likewise, the signal can
also be intercepted since the frequency band is fixed and narrow (i.e. easy to detect).

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 Spread Spectrum
The idea behind spread spectrum is to use more bandwidth than
the original message while maintaining the same signal power.

A spread spectrum signal does not have a clearly distinguishable

peak in the spectrum.

This makes the signal more difficult to distinguish from noise and
therefore more difficult to jam or intercept.

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 Spread Spectrum
Narrow-band Signals
• Band of signals occupy a
narrow range of
frequencies.
• Power density is high.
• Spread of energy is low and
concentrated.

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 Spread Spectrum
Spread Spectrum Signals
• Band of signals occupy a
wide range of frequencies.
• Power density is very low.
• Energy is wide spread.

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 Spread Spectrum
Spread Spectrum Signals
• Band of signals occupy a
wide range of frequencies.
• Power density is very low.
• Energy is wide spread.

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 These are of two types.
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
In this the users are made to change the frequencies of usage, from one
to another in a specified time interval, hence called as frequency hopping.
For example, a frequency was allotted to sender 1 for a
particular period of time. Now, after a while, sender 1 hops
to the other frequency and sender 2 uses the first
frequency, which was previously used by sender 1. This is
called as frequency reuse.

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 These are of two types.
The frequencies of the data are hopped from one to another in order to
provide a secure transmission. The amount of time spent on each
frequency hop is called as Dwell time.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
In the DSSS technique, each and every bit of the user data
is multiplied by a secret code, called as chipping code.

This chipping code is nothing but the spreading code which

is multiplied with the original message and transmitted.

The receiver uses the same code to retrieve the original

message.

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 Comparison
FHSS DSSS / CDMA
Multiple frequencies are used Single frequency is used

Hard to find the user’s frequency at any instant of User frequency, once allotted is always the same
time

Frequency reuse is allowed Frequency reuse is not allowed

Sender has to wait if the spectrum is busy

Sender need not wait

Power strength of the signal is high Power strength of the signal is low

Stronger and penetrates through the obstacles

It is weaker compared to FHSS

It is never affected by interference It can be affected by interference

It is cheaper It is expensive
This is the commonly used technique This technique is not frequently used

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 Advantages of Spread Spectrum
• Better security
• Reduction in noise
• Co-existence with other systems
• Longer operative distances
• Hard to detect
• Not easy to demodulate/decode
• Difficult to jam the signals

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9. Cellular System
 Cellular Network Concepts
• The design aim of early mobile wireless communication systems was to get a
huge coverage area with a single, high-power transmitter and an antenna
installed on a giant tower, transmitting a data on a single frequency.
• Although this method accomplished a good coverage, but it also means that it
was practically not possible to reuse the same frequency all over the system,
because any effort to reuse the same frequency would result in interference.
• The cellular concept was a major breakthrough
in order to solve the problems of limited
user capacity and spectral congestion.
• Cellular system provides high capacity with a
limited frequency spectrum without making
any major technological changes

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Cellular Network Concepts
• The network is distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at least one
fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site or base station.

• This base station provides the cell with the network coverage which can be used
for transmission of voice, data.

• In a cellular network, each cell uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring
cells, to avoid interference and provide guaranteed bandwidth within each cell.

• When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic
area.

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Cellular Network Concepts

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 Why Cells are represented in hexagon and not a circle?
When showing a cellular system, we want to depict an area totally
covered by radio waves, without any gaps.
A hexagon layout requires fewer cells to cover a given area. Hence, it
envisages fewer base stations and minimum capital investment.
Other geometrical shapes cannot effectively do this. For example, if
circular shaped cells are there, then there will be overlapping of cells.
Also for a given area, among square, triangle and hexagon, radius of a
hexagon will be the maximum which is needed for weaker mobiles.

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Frequency Re-use

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Frequency Re-use

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Frequency Re-use

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Frequency Re-use

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Interference Management
• Interference is inversely proportional to the ratio of the distance between cells to
the cell radius Cell radius is proportional to transmitter power.
• Interference on voice channels causes cross-talk on control channels, interference
leads to missed and blocked calls which are major bottleneck in increasing capacity.
• There are two primary sources of interference in the Radio Access Network:
1. C0-Channel Interference
2. Adjacent Channel Interference

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Co-Channel Interference

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Co-Channel Intereference

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Adjacent Channel Interference
• Interference from sources within adjacent frequency bands or channels
Interference can be reduced by
• Careful filtering
• Channel assignment
• Keeping frequency separation between each channel in a given cell as
large as possible.

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Advantages of Cellular System
Higher capacity
Smaller the size of the cell more the number of concurrent users i.e.
huge cells do not allow for more concurrent users.
Less transmission power
Huge cells require a greater transmission power than small cells.
Local interference only
For huge cells there are a number of interfering signals, while for
small cells there is limited interference only.
Robustness
As cellular systems are decentralized, they are more robust against
the failure of single components.

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Disadvantages of Cellular System
Infrastructure needed
Small cells require a complex infrastructure to connect all base
station.
The infrastructure required includes switches for call forwarding,
location registers etc.
Handover needed
The mobile station has to perform a handover when changing from
one cell to another very frequently.
Frequency planning
To avoid interference, frequency spectrum should be distributed
properly with a very less range of frequency spectrum.

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10.Conclusion Of Unit