Mathematics I

Dr. Aprilina Purbasari, ST, MT

Matrices
• A matrix is a rectangular array of real numbers.
• Such a matrix with m rows and n columns is said to
be of order m x n.
• If the matrix is square (that is, m = n), it is simply said
to be of order n.
Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication

• Consider any matrices A; B; C (with the same size)

and any scalars k and k’:
Matrix Multiplication
• Suppose A [aik] and B [bkj] are matrices such that the number of
columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B; say, A is an m x p
matrix and B is a p x n matrix.
• Then the product AB is the m x n matrix whose ij-entry is obtained
by multiplying the ith row of A by the jth column of B.
• The product AB is not defined if A is an m x p matrix and B is a q x n
matrix, where p ≠ q.
• Let A; B; C be matrices.
Transpose of a Matrix

• The transpose of a matrix A, written AT, is the matrix

obtained by writing the columns of A, in order, as
rows.
• If A=[aij] is an m x n matrix, then AT = [bij] is the n x m
matrix where bij = aji.
• Let A and B be matrices and let k be a scalar.
Square Matrices

• A square matrix is a matrix with the same number of

rows as columns.
• An n x n square matrix is said to be of order n and is
sometimes called an n-square matrix.
Identity Matrix, Scalar Matrices
• The n-square identity or unit matrix, denoted by In, or simply
I, is the n-square matrix with 1’s on the diagonal and 0’s
elsewhere.
• The identity matrix I is similar to the scalar 1 in that, for any n-
square matrix A,
AI = IA = A
• For any scalar k, the matrix kI that contains k’s on the diagonal
and 0’s elsewhere is called the scalar matrix corresponding to
the scalar k.
(kI)A = k(IA) = kA
Invertible (Nonsingular) Matrices
• A square matrix A is said to be invertible or nonsingular if
there exists a matrix B such that
AB = BA = I
• where I is the identity matrix. Such a matrix B is unique. That
is, if AB1 = B1A = I and AB2 = B2A = I, then

• We call such a matrix B the inverse of A and denote it by A-1.

• Observe that the above relation is symmetric; that is, if B is
the inverse of A, then A is the inverse of B.
Inverse of a 2 x 2 Matrix

│A │ = ab - bc (the determinant of A).

• In other words, when │A │ ≠ 0, the inverse of a 2 x 2 matrix A

may be obtained from A as follows:
(1) Interchange the two elements on the diagonal.
(2) Take the negatives of the other two elements.
(3) Multiply the resulting matrix by 1/ │A │ or, equivalently,
divide each element by │A │.
• In case │A │ = 0, the matrix A is not invertible.
Inverse of an n x n Matrix
• The following algorithm finds the inverse of a matrix:
Special Types of Square Matrices

Diagonal and Triangular Matrices

• A square matrix D = [dij] is diagonal if its nondiagonal
entries are all zero.
• Such a matrix is sometimes denoted by
D = diag(d11; d22; ...; dnn)
• A square matrix A = [aij] is upper triangular or simply
triangular if all entries below the (main) diagonal are
equal to 0, if aij = 0 for i > j.

• A lower triangular matrix is a square matrix whose

entries above the diagonal are all zero.
Symmetric Matrices
• A matrix A is symmetric if AT = A.
• A matrix A is skew-symmetric if AT = -A.
Orthogonal Matrices
• A real matrix A is orthogonal if AT = A-1.

Normal Matrices
• A real matrix A is normal if it commutes with its
transpose AT, if AAT = ATA.
Determinants

• Determinants of orders 1 and 2 are defined as

follows:
• Determinants of order 3
• Alternative form for a determinant of order 3
• The following algorithm reduces the evaluation of a
determinant of order n to the evaluation of a
determinant of order n - 1.
• Find the determinant of

• Use a23 = 1 as a pivot to put 0’s in the other positions of the third
column; that is, apply the row operations ‘‘Replace R1 by -2R2+R1”,
‘‘Replace R3 by 3R2+R3”, and ‘‘Replace R4 by R2+R4”.

• Now expand by the third column. Specifically, neglect all terms that
contain 0 and use the fact that the sign of the minor M23 is (-1)2+3 =
(-1). Thus,
Properties of determinants
(1) The determinant of a matrix A and its transpose AT are
equal; │A │ = │ AT│.
(2) Let A be a square matrix.
(i) If A has a row (column) of zeros, then │ A │ = 0.
(ii) If A has two identical rows (columns), then │ A │ = 0.
(iii) If A is triangular (i.e., A has zeros above or below
the diagonal), then │A │ = product of diagonal
elements.
(3) Suppose B is obtained from A by an elementary row
(column) operation.
(i) If two rows (columns) of A were interchanged, then
│B │ = -│ A │ .
(ii) If a row (column) of A were multiplied by a scalar k,
then │ B │ = k │ A │ .
(iii) If a multiple of a row (column) of A were added to
another row (column) of A, then │ B │ = │ A │ .
(4) The determinant of a product of two matrices A
and B is the product of their determinants;
det(AB) = det(A) det(B)
Minors and cofactors
• Consider an n-square matrix A = [aij].
• Let Mij denote the (n-1)-square submatrix of A
obtained by deleting its ith row and jth column.
• The determinant │Mij │is called the minor of the
element aij of A, and we define the cofactor of aij,
denoted by Aij; to be the ‘‘signed’’ minor:
• Note that the ‘‘signs’’ (-1)i+j accompanying the minors form a
chessboard pattern with +’s on the main diagonal:

• We emphasize that Mij denotes a matrix, whereas A denotes a

scalar.
Classical adjoint
• Let A = [aij] be an n x n matrix over a field K and let Aij
denote the cofactor of aij.
• The classical adjoint of A, denoted by adj A, is the
transpose of the matrix of cofactors of A.

• The classical adjoint of A can be used to determine

the inverse of A.
• The cofactors of the nine elements of A follow:

• The classical adjoint of A:

• The inverse of A:
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

• Let A be any square matrix.

• A scalar λ is called an eigenvalue of A if there exists a
nonzero (column) vector v such that

• Any vector satisfying this relation is called an

eigenvector of A belonging to the eigenvalue λ.
• Thus, v1 and v2 are eigenvectors of A belonging,
respectively, to the eigenvalues λ 1 = 1 and λ 2 = 4.
• Computing Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
• Characteristic Polynomials of Degrees 2 and 3
Find eigenvalues and eigenvector for:
• The system has only one independent solution; for example,
x = 1; y = 1. Thus, v = (1,1) and its multiples are the only
eigenvectors of B.