1
General Characteristics of Casting
Processes
• Sand casting
– Green sand casting
– Dry sand casting
• Investment casting
– Lost wax casting
– Shell mold casting
• Permanent mold casting
• Centrifugal casting or full casting
• Slush casting
• Continuous casting
3
Sand casting
4
Outline of a typical sand casting operation
5
Steps in sand casting
• Pattern allowances
• Types of patterns
• Considerations in pattern making
7
Pattern
8
Is pattern same as the casting?
9
Difference between pattern and casting (contd.)
10
Pattern allowances
• Shrinkage allowance
• Machining allowance
• Draft or Taper allowance
• Distortion allowance
• Rapping or Shake allowance
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SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE
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MACHINING ALLOWANCE
– Provided to compensate for machining on
casting.
– Pattern is made slightly bigger in size.
– Amount of allowance depends upon size and
shape of casting, type of material,
machining process to be used, degree of
accuracy and surface finish required, etc.
13
DRAFT OR TAPER ALLOWANCE
Provided to
facilitate easy
withdrawal of
the pattern.
Typically taper
ranges from 1
(a) Pattern with zero (no) draft (b) Patterndegree
with to 3
draft
degree for
wooden
(Not to scale)
patterns.
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DISTORTION ALLOWANCE
(a)(a)(a) (b)
(b)(b) (c)
(c)
(c)
equired
Required
quired shape
ofofof
shape
shape Casting
Casting
Casting produced
produced
produced when
whennono
when no Patternwith
Pattern
Pattern withdistortion
with distortion
distortion
casting
casting
casting distortion
distortion
distortion allowance
allowance
allowance isisis provided
provided
provided allowance
allowance
allowance
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What should be the material for the
pattern?
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WOOD
• Easily available
• Low weight
• Low cost
• It absorbs moisture and hence dimensions
will change
• Lower life
• Suitable for small quantity production and
very large size castings.
18
METAL
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PLASTIC
• Low weight
• Easier formability
• Do not absorb moisture
• Good corrosion resistance
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Selection of Pattern Material
• Size of casting
• Shape of casting
• Dimensional accuracy
• Quantity of castings required
• Possibility of repeat orders
• Cost and easy availability
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Pattern Material Characteristics
Characteristic Wood Aluminum Steel Plastic Cast iron
Machinability E G F G G
Wear resistance P G E F E
Strength F G E G G
Weightb E G P G P
Repairability E P G F G
Resistance to:
Corrosionc E E P E P
Swellingc P E E E E
aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor.
bAs a factor in operator fatigue.
cBy water.
Types of patterns
• Simple
shape
castings
are
produced
by this type
of patterns
L
Used when Part 2
patterns Part 1
cannot be
made as a
single piece
Dowel pin
(a) Solid pattern (b) Split pattern (c
25
Loose piece patterns
•Used when
withdrawal of Loose pieces
pattern from
Part 2
mould is not
Part
possible or
1
castings is having
projections,
undercuts,etc
•After ramming
Dowel pin
first main pattern
is removed and
n (b) Split pattern
then the loose
(c) Loose piece pattern
pieces 26
Gated pattern
Runner
Match plate
• It increases
production and
Pattern
helpsGate
in
maintaining
uniformity in
the size and
shape ofPattern
the
castings.
8 castings (b) Match plate pattern 28
Disposable pattern
Polystyrene
Polystyrene
Sand Sand Hot metal
Hot metal
pattern pattern
Sand Sand
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MOULDING SANDS
INGREDIENTS
• Silica, Clay, Sand grains, Moisture &
special additives like coal dust, fuel oil.
TYPES OF MOULDING SAND
• Natural foundry sand
• Synthetic (or Artificial) foundry sand
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COMMON MOULDING SAND
• Green Sand:
18-30% clay, 4-8% water.
Collected from natural resources.
Maintains moisture content for long time.
• Dry sand:
It is green sand dried and baked.
Yields porosity absent castings, as there is no moisture.
Suitable for very large size castings.
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• Loam sand:
Clay and silica are mixed in equal proportions.
• Parting sand:
Used to permit easy withdrawal of the pattern from
mould cavity.
• Core sand:
Sand used for making cores.
It should be stronger than moulding sand.
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Contents of Moulding Sand
• Sand – 70-85%
• Clay – 10-20%
• Water – 3-6%
• Organic additives (wood flour, sea coal,
dextrin, etc.)
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Characteristics of Moulding Sand
• Permeability
– ability of sand to allow gases to escape through
• Strength
– compressive strength
• Deformation
– change of length of a standard specimen at failure
• Flowability
– ability of sand to flow around and over the pattern during ramming
• Refractoriness
– ability of sand to remain solid at high temperatures
• Refractoriness
– ability of sand to remain solid at high temperatures
• Chemical resistivity, Collapsibility, Adhesiveness,
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2. Sand mold or cavity preparation
i. Initial setup
ii. Ramming up the drag
iii. Ramming up the cope
iv. Completing the cope
v. Completing the drag
vi. Setting the core
vii. Closing the mould
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Drag Preparation
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Drag Preparation (Inverted drag)
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Cope Preparation
Pin
38
Features/components of a sand mould
40
3. Melting of metal/alloy
• Types of furnaces
• Gases in metals/alloys
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4. Pouring
• Gates
• Types of gates
• Gating design
– Pouring time
– Choke area
– Sprue calculations
– Pouring basin
– Gating ratios
• Riser functions and design
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Gate
43
Types of Gates
• Top/Vertical Gate
– Favourable temperature gradient towards gate
– Less pouring time
– Cause mold erosion
– Cause turbulence in cavity (dross)
– Generally not used for non-ferrous metals
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Types of Gates(contd.)
• Bottom Gate
– Used for deep moulds
– Unfavourable temperature gradient
– High filling time
– Special sprue design
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Types of Gates (contd.)
• Parting Gate
– Most widely used
– Characteristics of top and bottom gates
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Types of Gates (contd.)
• Step/Horizontal Gate
– Used for large and heavy castings
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Gating Design
• Vertical gating
• Bottom Gating
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Pouring time for vertical gating
applying Bernoulli' s equation at 1and 3
p1v12 p3 v32
gh1 gh3
2 2
p1 p3 0, v1 0 & h3 0
v3 2 ght
Applying Continuity equation
V
tf
A3v3
50
Pouring time for bottom gating
v3 2 g (ht h)
Am 2
tf ( ht ht hm )
A3 2 g
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Choke Area Calculation
54
Air Aspiration (contd.)
d'
1.3
d
r 0.15 d
55
Pouring Basin
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Gating Design components to prevent impurities
• It reduces velocity
• It prevents mould erosion
58
Gating Ratios
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Types of Gating Ratio
• Non-pressurized (1:2:2)
– Choke at the bottom of the sprue
– No pressure flow in runner & gate
– Low velocity & low turbulence
– Used for drossy materials (Al, Mg)
• Pressurized (2:2:1)
– Ingate area is smallest
– Back pressure throughout the gating system
– High velocity, more turbulence, less chances of air
aspiration
– Dross formation (used for Ferrous alloys)
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Riser Functions
61
Riser Design
63
Chills
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Feeding Aids
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CAINE’s Method for Riser Design
a
X c
Y b
( A V )c
X
( A V )r
Vr
Y
Vc
X is freezing ratio
a,b and c are constantsfor differrent materials
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a b c
67
Cleaning & Finishing
• Removal of cores
• Cleaning of surfaces (sand & oxide scales)
• Removal of gating and risers
• Removal of fins, end of nails, unwanted
projections etc.
• Heat treatment
68
Casting Defects
69
Defects in sand casting
• Blow • Buckle
• Scar • Scab
• Blister • Rat tail
• Gas holes • Penetration
• Pin holes • Swell
• Porosity • Misrun
• Drop • Cold shut
• Inclusion • Hot tear
• Dross • Shrinkage cavity
• Dirt • Shift
• Wash
70
Blow/Scar/Blister
• Possible causes
– Excess moisture in the moulding sand
– Moisture on chills, chaplets, or metal inserts
– Cores not sufficiently baked or not properly
vented
– Permeability of moulding sand or core too low
because of hard ramming or excess binder or
too fine grain size
71
Gas holes
• Possible causes
– Faulty gating
– Faulty pouring
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Pin holes/Porosity
• Possible causes
– Gas dissolved in the alloy and the alloy not
properly degassed
– Pouring temperature of the alloy too high
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Drop
• Possible causes
– Moulding sand or core not sufficiently strong
– Faulty moulding
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Inclusion/Dirt
• Possible causes
– Faulty gating
– Faulty pouring
– Moulding sand or core not sufficiently strong
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Dross
• Possible causes
– Faulty gating design
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Wash
• Possible causes
– Faulty gating
– Moulding sand or core not sufficiently strong
– Insufficient good facing material on mould
cavity surfaces
77
Rat tail/Buckle
• Possible causes
– Poor design providing too large a flat surface in
the mould cavity
– Expansion characteristics of the moulding sand
need improvement
78
Penetration
• Possible causes
– Moulding sand has too large a grain size
– Moulding sand not rammed sufficiently hard
– Moulding sand or cores not sufficiently strong
– Pouring temperature of the alloy too high
– Insufficient good facing material on mold
cavity surface
79
Swell/Scab
• Possible causes
– Moulding sand not rammed sufficiently hard
– Mould not supported properly
– Moulding sand or core not sufficiently strong
80
Misrun/Cold shut
• Possible causes
– Faulty design resulting in a section thickness
which is too thin
– Low fluidity of alloys
– Faulty gating
– Pouring temperature too low
81
Hot tear
• Possible causes
– Faulty design of casting
– Insufficient collapsibility of cores
– Insufficient collapsibility of a portion of the
mould
82
Shrinkage cavity
• Possible causes
– Faulty design calling for isolated heavier
sections which are difficult to feed
– Faulty risering
– Faulty gating
– Improper use of chills
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Shift
• Possible causes
– Core/jackets not properly located
– Faulty flask/core boxes
84
Inspection Methods for Defects
• Process inspection
• Visual inspection
• Dimensional inspection
• Pressure testing
• Radiography
• Magnetic particle testing
• Penetrant testing methods
• Ultrasonic testing methods
85
Sand Casting
• Advantages
– Almost any metal cast;
– No limit to size, shape or weight;
– Low tooling cost
• Limitations
– Some finishing required;
– Somewhat coarse finish;
– Wide tolerances
86
Design Considerations in Casting
88
Casting Cross-Sections
89
Flat areas
90
Avoiding Shrinkage Cavities
91
Pads/Chills
92
Parting line
93
Parting line
94
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