The dominant role of users in

the scientific
instrument innovation proces
By Eric von HIPPEL (1976)

Presentation by Kamolov Javohir

ID number: W18030023
The essence of the paper

≈80% of the innovations were in fact:

• invented,
• prototyped
• first field-tested

by users of the instrument

Previous key findings
1. ≈3/4 commercially successful industrial good
innovation projects are initiated in response to a
perception of user need for an innovation, rather
than on the basis of a technological opportunity
to achieve them.
2. Accurate understanding of user need is the factor
which discriminates most strongly between
commercially successful industrial good
innovation projects and those which fail.
Questions that arise…

1. How to acquire an “accurate understanding of

user need”?
2. Is it information input from the user?
3. If yes, does the firm must seek this input from the
user?
4. Or will user seek him out?
5. What does a “need input” look like?
How does “need input” look like?

1. Vague user complaints?

• Clearly not a good basis for product specification

2. Looking for home-made devices?

• Copy them and sell to other users?
 The sample
Basic Major Minor
Instrument type Total
Innovations improvements improvements

Gas chromatography 1 11 - 12

Nuclear magnetic
resonance 1 14 - 15
spectrometry

Ultraviolet absorption
1 5 - 6
spectrophotometry

Transition electron
1 14 63 78
microscopy
Total 4 44 63 111
 Results
User-dominated steps Manufacturer Role
1 2 3 4

Significant instrument
User diffuses results ‘how to do it’
improvement A few users (or a few dozen) Instrument company introduces
information via publication,
invented, built and build their own. commercial version.
symposia, visits etc.
used by:

INVENTIVE
USER

Other users ask instrument

companies when a commercial COMMERCIALIZING
version will be available INSTRUMENT COMPANY

Invention, Information diffusion Pre-commercial replication Commercial manufacture and sale

prototyping and use
 Results by type of instrument
Innovation process dominated by
Major improvements % User
innovations affecting dominated
User Manufacturer Total

Gas chromatography 82% 9 2 11

Nuclear magnetic resonance

79% 11 3 14
spectrometry

Ultraviolet absorption
100% 5 0 5
spectrophotometry

Transition electron microscopy 79% 11 3 14

Total 81% 36 8 44
 Results by type of innovation
Innovation process dominated by
Major improvements % User
innovations affecting dominated
User Manufacturer NA Total

Basic instrument 100% 4 0 0 4

Major improvement 82% 36 8 0 44

Minor improvement 70% 32 14 17 63

Total 77% 72 22 17 111

 Results: a subsample of cases with the first chronological case

Innovation process dominated by

Major improvements % User
innovations affecting dominated
User Manufacturer Total

Gas chromatography 86% 6 1 7

Nuclear magnetic resonance

100% 5 0 5
spectrometry

Ultraviolet absorption
100% 2 0 2
spectrophotometry

Transition electron microscopy 83% 5 1 6

Total 90% 18 2 20
 Results: homebuilt innovations by user domination

Greater than one year, were One year or less, were

homebuilts present? homebuilts present?

% Yes Yes No NA % Yes Yes No NA

Gas chromatography 86% 6 1 7 0% 0 3 1

Nuclear magnetic
resonance 100% 5 0 5 0% 0 1 1
spectrometry

Total 90% 18 2 20 0% 0 4 2
3 Cases
I. A user-dominated innovation process → a major
improvement

II. A manufacturer-dominated innovation process →

a major improvement

III. A user-dominated innovation process → a minor

impovement
Case 1: A user-dominated
innovation → major improvement

Documented their Varian engineers

Bloch, Anderson, Varian introduced
work and published connected with
Arnold built a the product by
in Physical Review in Bloch and developed
prototype spinner December of 1954
April, 1954 a commercial model
Case 2: A manufacturer-dominated
innovation → major improvement

The first pre-

Siemens made the
commercial electron Jack Vance, the
80 000 volts first commercial The first commercial
microscopes engineer from RCA,
required 40 000 model. But output model was
required high developed stable
single cell batteries voltage was not introduced in 1941
voltage power power supply
constant
supply
Case 3: A user-dominated
innovation → minor improvement

To prevent this,
A user submitted
A pinhole-sire some C.W. French, a
a paper to EMSA He figured out to The commercial
aperture of manufacturers manufacturer,
in 1964, which replace aperture model was
electron used electrically read the paper
described his with one made of introduced in
microscope got heated apertures. and contacted the
invention to golf foil 1964
‘dirty’ after usage But it was author.
prevent this
inefficient
The moral…

• The locus of almost the entire scientific instrument

innovation process is centered in the user
• Only “commercial diffusion” is carried out by the
manufacturer
 Technical innovation process by Marquis and Meyers

Primary
Actor User Manufacturer

Innovation TIME
Utilization and Utilisation and →
Process Idea Problem Diffusion Diffusion
Recognition Solution
Stage Formulation Solving
Pre-commercial Commercial

(Capsule (R & D (Invention)

activity)
Stage (Recognition
of (Fusion of
Description) technological feasibility and
feasibility of demand
an innovation perception into
and potential a design
demand for concept
it.)
 The author propose…

• “Their sample does not follow a within-

manufacturer pattern…”
• He “feels that other patterns exist”
 Technical innovation process by Marquis and Meyers

Primary
User Manufacturer
Actor

Innovation Utilization and Utilisation and TIME

Idea Problem Diffusion Diffusion →
Process Recognition
Formulation Solving
Solution
Stage Pre-commercial Commercial

(Capsule (Recognition (R & D (Invention)

of (Fusion of activity)
Stage technological feasibility and
Description) feasibility of demand
an innovation perception into
and potential a design
demand for concept
it.)
 Technical innovation process by Marquis and Meyers

Primary
Manufacturer
Actor

Innovation Utilization and Utilisation and TIME

Idea Problem Diffusion Diffusion →
Process Recognition
Formulation Solving
Solution
Stage Pre-commercial Commercial

(Capsule (Recognition (R & D (Invention)

of (Fusion of activity)
StageUser-built prototype
technological feasibility and
Description) feasibility of demand
might simply serve as an
an innovation
and potential
perception into
a design
“idea”, which the firm
demand for
it.)
concept

“recognizes”
 Technical innovation process by Marquis and Meyers

Primary
Manufacturer
Actor

Innovation Utilization and Utilisation and TIME

Idea Problem Diffusion Diffusion →
Process Recognition
Formulation Solving
Solution
Stage Pre-commercial Commercial

(Capsule (Recognition (R & D (Invention)

of (Fusion of activity)
Stage The engineers then
technological feasibility and
Description) feasibility of demand
might “formulate idea”
an innovation
and potential
perception into
a design
to commercialize the
demand for
it.)
concept

user prototype
 Technical innovation process by Marquis and Meyers

Primary
Manufacturer
Actor

Innovation Utilization and Utilisation and TIME

Idea Problem Diffusion Diffusion →
Process Recognition
Formulation Solving
Solution
Stage Pre-commercial Commercial

(Capsule (Recognition (R & D (Invention)

Stage
of
technological “Problem Solving” and
(Fusion of
feasibility and
activity)

Description) feasibility of demand

an innovation “Solution” would be the
perception into
and potential a design
demand for engineering work
concept
it.)
leading to realization of
the commercial
embodiment
However…
 However…
• The whole process might be unproductive

• A scientific instrument industry regarded as highly

innovative, in fact it is not innovative

• Firms are just manufacturing for innovative set of

users/customers
 However…
8/10 innovation cases in the scientific instrument
industry, the innovation process work is shared by
the user and manufacturer

20%

80%

INNOVATION CASES
 Implications
• Government: both users and manufacturers should
be considered when designing incentive schemes
for innovation
• Instrument firms: innovation search and
development organization could be optimized
thanks to users
• Researchers: there is another variable that requires
to work with
 Other innovation patterns
INNOVATION
PATTERN DOMINANT LOCUS OF ACTIVITY

User-Dominant Product User Manufacturer

Commercializer
Users Product Manufacturer
Dominant

Materials
Supplier Users Material Supplier for Product Manufacturer
Dominant

Marquis and Utilization and Utilization and

Meyers Idea Problem Diffusion Diffusion TIME
Recognition Solution
Innovation and formation solving →
Process Stage
Pre-commercial Commercial
 Other innovation patterns
INNOVATION
PATTERN DOMINANT LOCUS OF ACTIVITY

User-Dominant Product User Manufacturer

Cases 1 and 3 are examples for user-dominated innovation

Commercializer
Users Product Manufacturer
Dominant

Materials
Supplier Users Material Supplier for Product Manufacturer
Dominant

Marquis and Utilization and Utilization and

Meyers Idea Problem Diffusion Diffusion TIME
Recognition Solution
Innovation and formation solving →
Process Stage
Pre-commercial Commercial
 Other innovation patterns
INNOVATION
PATTERN DOMINANT LOCUS OF ACTIVITY

User-Dominant Product User Manufacturer

Commercializer
Users Product Manufacturer
Dominant

Case 2 is an example for a manufacturer-dominated innovation pattern

Materials
Supplier Users Material Supplier for Product Manufacturer
Dominant

Marquis and Utilization and Utilization and

Meyers Idea Problem Diffusion Diffusion TIME
Recognition Solution
Innovation and formation solving →
Process Stage
Pre-commercial Commercial
 Other innovation patterns
INNOVATION
PATTERN DOMINANT LOCUS OF ACTIVITY

User-Dominant Product User Manufacturer

Commercializer
Users Product Manufacturer
Dominant

Materials
Supplier Users Material Supplier for Product Manufacturer
Dominant

When suppliers of materials want to incorporate their material into a

Marquis and Utilization and Utilization and
product
Meyers but do not
Recognition
want
Idea to manufacture
Problem the
Solution
product
Diffusion itself Diffusion TIME
Innovation and formation solving →
Process Stage
Pre-commercial Commercial
Characterization of the inventive user
• Some needed the invention as a day-in, day-out
functional tool for their work
• Others were motivated to invent and reduce the
invention to practice because how it performed
was useful means of testing and deepening their
understanding of its working principles
Multiple significant innovations by
the same individual
Instances of more than
Total major one major innovation
Major improvement innovations invented by the same
innovations
affecting by users non-instrument firm
employee
Gas chromatography 9 2 by one user

Nuclear Magnetic resonance 11 3 by one user

Ultraviolet spectrophotometry 5 2 by one user

Transmission electron microscopy 11 4 by one user

Total 36 11
How to acquire an “accurate understanding of
user need”?
• A scientific instrument companies do have access
to user need, which is prototype developed by the
user
Both need and
Need only content Solution content
solution content

“We didn’t know that you

“We knew you needed that
needed that. “You need that?
But didn’t know how to
We’ll design a better We’ll build some to your
build one
solution than in your design”
Thanks for design help”
prototype”
How to acquire an “accurate understanding of
user need”?

Both need and

Need only content Solution content
solution content

“We didn’t know that you

“We knew you needed that
needed that. “You need that?
But didn’t know how to
We’ll design a better We’ll build some to your
build one.
solution than in your design”
Thanks for design help”
prototype”

In 78% of cases
commercialized
instrument followed
the user prototype
How to acquire an “accurate understanding of
user need”?

Both need and

Need only content Solution content
solution content

“We didn’t know that you

“We knew you needed that
needed that. “You need that?
But didn’t know how to
We’ll design a better We’ll build some to your
build one.
solution than in your design”
Thanks for design help”
prototype”

Manufacturer’s role
in the innovation
process is product
engineering work
How to acquire an “accurate understanding of
user need”?

Both need and

Need only content Solution content
solution content

“We didn’t know that you

“We knew you needed that
needed that. “You need that?
But didn’t know how to
We’ll design a better We’ll build some to your
build one.
solution than in your design”
Thanks for design help”
prototype”

“… typically affects
Manufacturer’s role only the engineering
in the innovation embodiment of the
process is product user’s invention, not
engineering work its operating
principles”
In conclusion

• There might be more than one innovation patterns

• In scientific instrument industry, in most cases
innovation might be user-dominated
• In user-dominated innovation pattern,
manufacturer’s role is product engineering work
• In user-dominated innovation pattern,
manufacturer is responsible for commercial
diffusion
Thanks for your
attention 