1
AGENCY
Delegate Power
Principal Engage Agent
Agency Problem
• The desires / goals of the principal and agent
have a conflict; and
• It is difficult or expensive for the principal to
verify what the agent is actually doing (whether
he is working appropriately)
COMPANY
Delegate Power
Shareholder Engage BOD
• Wide ownership base, • Delegated the task to run
(listed - stock exchanges) the company
• Lack of interest in the • Does not share the
management - limited risk Principal's motive of profit
and liability maximization – more
• Short term motive - Capital interested in remuneration
gains in stock market
INFORMATION
Elect
Shareholder B.O.D
Information
A
• Information is ASYMMETRIC U • Shareholder
• Principal cannot monitor D
appoints Ext.
I
whether their interest is served T Auditor
• Auditor give an
External Auditor OPINION
Independent
Shareholder Information BOD
External Auditor I
N
F
Independent O
R
M
Internal Auditor A
T
I
O
• External auditor appointed by N
shareholders
• Internal auditor appointed by BOD
(Audit Committee) Employees
POLICEMAN THEORY
• Is an auditor responsible for discovering
fraud, like a policeman?
• The theory suggests that Auditor is responsible
for searching, discovering and preventing fraud.
• The theory is now redundant as it is established
that audit is “Verification of truth and fairness
of the financial statements” and not preventing
frauds and errors.
Assurance = Confidence
a) A three party relationship: 1) intended user, (2)
responsible party and (3) the Practitioner
b) A subject matter: data to be evaluated that has
been prepared by the responsible party i.e.
historical financial information, non-financial
performance (key performance indicators),
processes (internal control) and behavior
(compliance with laws and regulations).
c) Suitable criteria: The subject matter is evaluated or
measured against criteria in order to reach an
opinion (Accounting Framework).
d) Evidence: Sufficient appropriate evidence needs
to be gathered to support the required level of
assurance.
e) An assurance report: A written report (Audit
Report) containing the practitioner's opinion is
issued to the intended user, in the form
appropriate to a reasonable assurance
engagement or a limited assurance engagement.
LEVELS OF ASSURANCE
Absolute Not used in cases of FS