UNIT - II

SWITCHING TRANSIENTS
• Over voltages due to switching transients.
• Resistance switching and the equivalent circuit for interrupting the
resistor current.
• Load switching and equivalent circuit.
• Waveforms for transient voltage across the load and the switch.
• Normal and abnormal switching transients.
• Current suppression.
• Current chopping.
• Effective equivalent circuit.
• Capacitance switching.
• Effect of source regulation.
• Capacitance switching with a restrike, with multiple restrikes.
• Illustration for multiple restricting transients.
• Ferro resonance.
Outline of this presentation

– Introduction

– Classification of Transients

– Switching surges

– Overvoltage control

– Current suppression

– Capacitance switching

– Formal analysis of transients

Introduction

• Electrical power systems are highly nonlinear and dynamic in nature:

– Circuit breakers are closing and opening
– Faults are being cleared
– Generation is varying in response to load demand
– Atmospheric disturbances, that is, lightning.

• Assuming a given steady state, the system must settle to a new acceptable
steady state in a short duration.

• The electromagnetic and electromechanical energy is constantly being

redistributed in the power systems, among the system components.

• These energy exchanges cannot take place instantaneously

• But take some time period which brings about the transient state.

• The energy status of the sources can also undergo changes and may
subject the system to higher stresses resulting from increased currents
and voltages.
• The analysis of these excursions in the electrical systems is the main objective of
transient analysis and simulation of transients in power systems.
Classification of Transients

Based on the origin

• 1. Atmospheric origin, that is, lightning
• 2. Switching origin, that is, all switching operations, load rejection, and faults

Based on the mode of generation

• 1. Electromagnetic transients
• Generated predominantly by the interaction between the electrical fields of
capacitance and magnetic fields of inductances in the power systems.
• The electromagnetic phenomena may appear as traveling waves on transmission
lines, cables, bus sections, and oscillations between inductance and capacitance.

• 2. Electromechanical transients
• Interaction between the electrical energy stored in the system and the
mechanical energy stored in the inertia of the rotating machines, that is,
generators and motors. (Ferro resonance)
• Surges occur because of sudden interaction of the trapped charge
with the system voltage.
• The charge is trapped in the line capacitance which is distributed
along the length of the line.
Classification of voltage stresses
• ■ Continuous power frequency voltages.

• ■ Lightning (fast front) over voltages, caused by lightning.

• ■ Switching (slow front) over voltages, caused by switching, fault

initiation, or remote lightning strikes.

• ■ Temporary over voltages, caused by faults, load rejection, line

energizing, resonant conditions, ferro resonance.

• ■ Very fast front over voltages usually associated with high voltage
disconnect switch operation and GIS, and cable connected motors.
Switching Surges
• Mechanisms of generating the switching surges:
• ■ Charging an unloaded line, which has not been charged
before, and open at far end.
• ■ Switching lines terminated in transformers.
• ■ Series capacitor compensated lines, static condenser
(STATCON), SVCs, and other flexible ac transmission system
(FACT) devices.
• ■ Auto-reclosing.
• ■ Load shedding.
• ■ Disconnection of large inductances, unloaded transformers,
reactors.
• ■ Flashovers of longitudinal insulation configuration.
• ■ Short circuit and fault clearance, that is, when phase-to
phase or phase-to-ground faults are cleared.
• ■ Single-pole closing of circuit breakers.
Closing and Reclosing of Transmission Lines
• The transient phenomena will vary according to the system
configuration, the source type, line length, and terminations.

• For a line open at the far end when the

source is mainly inductive
• a single line connected to a transformer.

• It is single-frequency transient

• If switching takes place at maximum voltage

in a phase, the transient oscillates to almost twice the value of the
system voltage across the entire line length.

• The losses in the system will dampen the transient by some

percentage.
• For a line open at the far end with infinite source
impedance
• The system from which the line originates has a number of
cables or lines connected to it.

• The line being switched is not longer

than the incoming lines.

• Many line terminations and connections

at the point of origination of the line
being switched means that these
terminations present an overall low
characteristic impedance compared to
the line being switched.

• As a result the transient occurs at its

natural frequency.
• For a line open at the far end with complex source impedance
• Consisting of inductance of transformers and the surge impedance
of other lines and cables feeding the system.

• The transient overvoltage occurs at a number

of frequencies.

• Highest over voltages occur when unloaded

high-voltage transmission lines are energized
and reenergized and this imposes voltage
stresses on circuit breakers.
• Consider closing of a line of surge impedance Z0 and length l, open at the
far end.

• Before the breaker is closed, the voltage on the supply side of the
breaker terminal is equal to the power system voltage, while the
line voltage is zero.
• At the moment of closing, the voltage at the sending end must rise
from zero to the power frequency voltage.
• This takes place in the form of a traveling wave on the line with its
peak at um interacting with supply system parameters.
• As an unloaded line has capacitive impedance, the steady-state
voltage at the supply end is higher than the system voltage (Ferranti
effect)
• The receiving-end voltage is higher than the sending end.
• The Overvoltage factor

• um - Highest peak voltage at a given point

• un - Power-frequency voltage on the supply side of the breaker
before switching.
• The Power-frequency overvoltage factor

• upf - Power frequency voltage after closure at a point.

• The transient overvoltage factor

• The power-frequency overvoltage factor

• The relation between sending and receiving end voltage is 1 /

Overvoltage Control
• ■ Resistance switching
• ■ Synchronous closing
• ■ Line compensation
• ■ Application of surge arresters
• ■ Application of surge capacitors
• ■ Protective relaying

• Connecting high voltage reactors from line to ground at the sending

and receiving ends of the transmission lines. (The electrical length
of the line is reduced).

• Closing of CB during that half cycle of the power-frequency voltage,

which has the same polarity as the trapped charge.

• High-voltage CB may be fitted with devices for polarity-dependent

closing.
Synchronous Operation
• A breaker for synchronous operation opens and closes with fixed
reference to the phase position of the system voltage or current
oscillations.
• An electronic device records the system voltage, and the zero
crossings of the voltage forms the reference point.
• The tripping pulse is controlled depends upon the operating time of
the circuit breaker.
• In synchronous closing, the breaker is controlled so that the
contacts touch at voltage zero.
• The contacts should close at voltage zero when energizing capacitor
banks.
• In synchronous opening, the breaker is controlled so that current
zero occurs at a definite contact gap.
• The maximums and zeros in different phases occur at different
times.
• Independent pole operation is a standard feature for circuit
breakers of 550 kV, 138 KV.

• The overvoltage will be minimum for zero-closing angle and infinite

source impedance.

• Operations for which synchronous switching can be effective are:

• ■ Switching of capacitor banks

• ■ Unloaded transformers
• ■ Shunt reactors, that is, compensated transmission lines
• ■ Switching to mitigate effects of residual charge on transmission
lines.
Current Suppression
• Current carried by a power switch does not cease when its contacts
separate.
• Current continuous to flow through an arc until it reaches its
periodic zero.
• Arc suppression devices in the CB bring the current to zero abruptly
and prematurely ahead of normal zero.
• This phenomenon is referred to as current chopping.
• Also known as current suppression.
• It can give rise to an abnormal voltage as a consequence of the
release of trapped magnetic energy associated with the current .
• I0 – the instantaneous current at the time of chop.
• Flowing in the transformer winding and is associated with a certain
amount of magnetic energy.
• Exist in the transformer core, Energy = ½ LmI02
• I0 is only 1% of the normal full load current.
• The value of magnetizing inductance Lm is high.
• The current cannot become zero and diverted into the system
capacitance on the transformer side of the switch.
• The capacitor C consists of the transformer capacitance +
capacitance in the connections between the switch and the
transformer.
• The energy from the magnetic field of the transformer is transferred
to the electric field of the capacitance.
• If this capacitance is known, it is possible to calculate the voltage to
which C will be charged.
• ½ CV2 = ½ LmI02 V = I0 (Lm/C)1/2
• The peak voltage across the capacitor (across the winding) is the
product of instantaneous current and the surge impedance of the
transformer.

• Transient voltage is independent of system voltage.

• Let us consider a 1000 kVA, 13.8 KV transformer, the magnetizing

current is 1.5 A.

• Lm = V /Im = 13,800 / √3 x 377 x 1.5 = 14H

• C value vary between 1000 – 7000 pF

• Z0 = 14 / 5 x 10-9 = 52,915 ohm

• If Io is 2.5 A voltage peak is 132kV (system voltage 13.8kV)

• Only a fraction of energy trapped in the core at the time of chop is
released.
• Energy stored in the core during the intervals
QX and ZP.
• When the current is at its peak (point X) energy
is Proportional to area QXY is stored in the iron.
• When current decline to zero (point Z) energy is
Proportional to area XYZ is retrieved and reminder
is spent.
• If current is chopped at the peak and is forced to divert into the
capacitance.
• It follows the path higher than XZ (shaded area is smaller)
• The shaded area represents less than 30% of the energy stored when the
chop occurs.
• Chopping voltage will not exceed Io(0.3Lm / C)1/2
• 55% of the calculated value.
• When the voltage level increase insulation failure is lower
• Distribution transformer are more vulnerable.
• Let IC, IR, IL are currents in CRL branches.
• The value of current chopped be I0.

• After the chop there is no path in the switch

and IC + IR +IL = 0.
• IC = C dV / dt, IR = V / R, IL = 1/Lm ∫ Vdt
• Where, V is the voltage across the transformer winding.

• V(0) is the value of voltage when the switch chops

• V’(0) is the rate of change at that time.
• First two terms represents the normal transient when the
transformer were disconnected from the supply with no current
chopping.

• The current is approaching zero from negative polarity voltage is

positive and leading.

• Chop current is 0.5 – 0.6 A, but the voltage surge is nearly 20 KV.
Capacitance switching
• Disconnection of capacitor banks, dropping of unloaded overhead
lines or cables.
• Problem arise if the switching operation is unsuccessful (reignites or
restrikes)
• Frequency of occurrence is low but frequency of switching is more.

• capacitor
• voltage
• Current leads the voltage by approximately 900.

• The capacitor is fully charged to maximum voltage when switch

interrupts.

• After isolation charge is retained.

• When a capacitor connected draws leading current from the system

flowing through the inductance of the system.
• Capacitor voltage higher than the open circuit system voltage.
• When the capacitor disconnected, the potential of the source side
CB return to this lower value.
• Oscillation involving source inductance and stray capacitance
adjacent to the CB of the source side.
• Accurate representation of disconnection,

• ∆V – negative regulation.
• Important for weak systems

• A lower voltage system is

supplied by a higher voltage
system through a step down
transformer with cable.
• Some CB do not interrupt the circuit at first current zero.
• Restrike takes place
• The LC circuit oscillate at its natural frequency
• The restrike current will be the instantaneous voltage across the
switch divided by the circuit surge impedance.
• The transient voltage is 3 Vp
• Consequence of energy stored in the
capacitor bank at the time of restrike.
After another half cycle, the voltage across the CB is 4 Vp.
Formal analysis of transients
• Transient is initiated whenever there is a sudden change
of circuit conditions.
– The closing of a switch or circuit breaker to energize a load.
– The opening of a breaker to clear a fault.
• THE CIRCUIT CLOSING TRANSIENT
• Energizing an RL circuit
• When the switch S is closed,
• Let V = Vm sin ωt = 10 sin ωt
• The phase angle θ permits
closing the switch at any instant.

The operational solution for current,

 dy 
 L   sL y   y (0)
 dx 

Let,
Steady state term

Transient term
• When switch closes at the instant θ = φ,
– The transient term will be zero
– Current wave will be symmetrical

• When switch closes at the instant θ – φ = + π/2

– Transient term attains maximum amplitude
– Twice the peak amplitude of the steady state value.

• Significant for the circuit breakers.

• The CB must be designed electrically, mechanically and thermally to

withstand the subsequent closing and opening of switches.

• Electromagnetic forces setup by such currents could cause buckling

of parts of the CB.

• Theses forces are proportional to the square of the current

• Asymmetrical currents flow through the contacts of a
closed CB during short circuit.

• These Momentary currents melt the contacts due to the

energy dissipated in contact resistance.

• The rate of decay of the transient component of an

asymmetrical current depends upon the time constant of
the circuit.

• Depends upon the X/R ratio rather than the L/R time
constants.
• Capacitor Inrush Currents
• L – source inductance
• L1 – Inductance of the
Local circuit.
Consider the closing of switch S1
 I  C dVc dt

Vc  1 C  I dt  Qc / C

Qc(0) / C – initial voltage on the capacitor.

• Let us assume the initial current I(0) = 0
• Vc(0) is any value, let 1 / LC = ω0

• where, surge impedance

• V(0) – instantaneous voltage driving the current.
Thank you