LECTURE 2: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY

REQUIRED READING: Kandel text, Appendix Chapter I

Neurons transmit electrical currents

Behavior of synaptically linked neurons has similarities to

behavior of solid-state electrical circuits

Therefore, a fundamental appreciation of the nervous system

requires understanding its electrical properties

THIS LECTURE INTRODUCES BASIC CONCEPTS, TERMINOLOGY,

AND EQUATIONS OF ELECTRICITY ESSENTIAL TO OUR
TACKLING THE ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY OF NEURONS AND
NEURAL CIRCUITS
 CHARGED PARTICLES AND ELECTROSTATIC FORCE

Some particles have electrical CHARGE; charge can be POSITIVE or NEGATIVE

Charged particles exert FORCE on each other:

LIKE charges REPEL
OPPOSITE charges ATTRACT

{examples of charged particles: electrons (-), ions (- OR +)}

Force experienced by charged particle determined by the sum and distances

of surrounding charges
+ +
POSITIVE
+
+ +
ATTRACTIVE
+ -
REPULSIVE

FORCE
FORCE
FORCE
NO

+ + +
-
+ + - +-
- - -
NEUTRAL POSITIVE NEGATIVE
- +- NEGATIVE
-
 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCE AND RESISTANCE

+ +
WHEN CHARGED PARTICLES ARE SUBJECT TO
ELECTRICAL FORCE, THEIR ABILITY TO MOVE
A +
POSITIVE
-
FROM POINT A TO B IS INFLUENCED BY
CONDUCTIVE PROPERTY OF MATERIAL

+
CONDUCTANCE (g) {units=siemens,S}
measure of material’s ease in allowing
movement of charged particles

RESISTANCE (R) {units=Ohms,W} B - +- NEGATIVE

measure of material’s difficulty in allowing -

electrical conduction

Resistance is the INVERSE of Conductance. I.e.:

1 g= 1
R= OR
g R
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
When there is a charge differential between two
points, energy is stored. This stored energy is VA
called ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL or
+ +
A +
POSITIVE
VOLTAGE DIFFERENTIAL (DV) {units = volts, V} -
DV = VA - VB
When there is a voltage differential between two DV + I
points in a conductive material, charged particles
will be forced to move. Movement of charge is
an ELECTRICAL CURRENT

CURRENT (I) {units = amperes, A} B - +- NEGATIVE

is the RATE of charge flow. -
VB
I = dq / dt

Where q = amount of charge {units = coulombs, Q}

and t = time {units = seconds, s}

NOTE: I > 0 means net flow of positive charge; I < 0 means net flow of negative charge
 OHM’S LAW

The amount of current flow is directly proportional to both

the voltage differential and the conductance

I = DV x g
Since g = 1 / R I = DV / R OR DV = I x R
WATER PRESSURE ANALOGY
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
VALVE
I FLOW RATE
PA
VA VB
PB
R
Water Pressure is analogous to Voltage Differential
Valve Resistance is analogous to Electrical Resistance
DV = VA - VB = IR Flow Rate is analogous to Electrical Current

I = DV / R Flow Rate = Water Pressure / RVALVE

 THE “I-V PLOT” & OHM’S LAW

I
VA VB I = DV x g
R
In a simple resistive circuit, the relationship CONDUCTANCE ( g )
between current and voltage is LINEAR is SLOPE
of line in
I I I - V PLOT
20 20

10 10

DV DV
- 20 - 10 10 20 - 20 - 10 10 20
- 10 - 10

- 20 - 20

HIGH CONDUCTANCE WEAKER CONDUCTANCE

 MULTIPLE RESISTANCES IN SERIES
IN SERIES RESISTANCES SUM TO GIVE OVERALL RESISTANCE

POSITIVE R1 R2 NEGATIVE
a b c

I1 I2

DV1 DV2

Two resistances are summed

to give the overall resistance
between points a and c RTOTAL (a,c) = R1 (a,b) + R2 (b,c)

Currents are equal along

the series ITOTAL (a,c) = I1 (a,b) = I2 (b,c)

By Ohm’s Law, the total voltage

differential equals the sum of DVTOTAL (a,c) = DV1 (a,b) + DV2 (b,c)
the component voltages
 MULTIPLE RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL
R1

I1
POSITIVE NEGATIVE

ITOTAL
I2
R2

Total current is the sum of individual ITOTAL = I1 + I2

parallel currents

Total conductance is the sum of gTOTAL = g1 + g2

parallel conductances

The voltage differential between two points DVTOTAL = DV1 = DV2

is the same no matter what the path

By Ohm’s Law, larger current travels thru

the “path of least resistance” I1 x R1 = I2 x R2
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

POSITIVE
ITOTAL
EQUIVALENT ITOTAL
I1 I2 I1 I2
REPRESENTATIONS
+
R1 R2 R1 R2
-
ITOTAL
NEGATIVE

+ SYMBOL DESIGNATES A VOLTAGE GENERATOR (POWER SOURCE)

WHICH MAINTAINS A CHARGE DIFFERENTIAL FROM ONE SIDE
- TO THE OTHER (e.g. A BATTERY)
 BEHAVIOR OF A SIMPLE RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
SWITCH OPEN SWITCH CLOSED
AT t = 0 sec AT t = 5 sec

I I

+ +
R R
(10 W ) DV 10 V
(10 W ) DV 10 V
- -

CIRCUIT PROPERTIES
DV (volts)

10 I (Amps)
1

0 0

0 5 0 5
t (sec) t (sec)
 CAPACITANCE
SOME MATERIALS CANNOT CONDUCT ELECTRICITY, BUT CAN ABSORB CHARGE
WHEN SUBJECTED TO A CURRENT OR VOLTAGE

CAPACITANCE (C) {units = farads , F}

is the measure of the AMOUNT OF CHARGE DIFFERENTIAL which builds up
ACROSS a material when subjected to a voltage differential.

q = DV x C or DV = q / C
I.e. Larger capacitance ----> Larger charge stored

A material that has capacitance is called a capacitor. The schematic symbol for a
capacitor is:

C
 BEHAVIOR OF A SIMPLE CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
SWITCH OPEN SWITCH CLOSED
AT t = 0 sec AT t = 5 sec

I I

+ +
C DV 10 V
C DV 10 V
(10 F ) - (10 F ) -

CIRCUIT PROPERTIES

Q (coulombs)
DV (volts)

I (Amps)

10 100

0 0 0

0 5 0 5 0 5
t (sec) t (sec) t (sec)
RELATIONSHIP OF CAPACITANCE AND CURRENT

AS DESCRIBED BEFORE:

q = C x DV

SINCE I = dq /dt
dq/dt = I = C x dDV/dt

I.e. As current flows into a capacitor, the voltage across it increases

 CIRCUIT WITH CAPACITANCE & RESISTANCE IN SERIES
SWITCH OPEN SWITCH CLOSED
BEFORE t = 0 AT t = 0 sec

I I
R + R +
DVA 10 V DVA 10 V
(5 W ) - (5 W ) -
C DVB C DVB
(1 F ) (1 F )

( REMEMBER: After switch closed, DVA + DVB = DVTOTAL = 10 V )

CIRCUIT PROPERTIES
DVA (volts)

DVB (volts)

10 10 2

I (amps)
0 0 0

-5 0 5 10 -5 0 5 10 -5 0 5 10
t (sec) t (sec) t (sec)
 LOGARHYTHMIC DECAY OF CURRENT THROUGH A
CIRCUIT WITH CAPACITANCE & RESISTANCE IN SERIES
SWITCH OPEN SWITCH CLOSED AT
BEFORE t = 0 t = 0 sec

I I
R + R +
DVA 10 V DVA 10 V
(5 W ) - (5 W ) -
C DVB C DVB
(1 F ) (1 F )

d VC VR VTOT - VC
Equ. A I=C Equ. B I= =
dt R R
Combine equations A & B and integrate

-
VC (t) = VTOT (1 - e t / RC )
-
e t / RC
V (t) = V
R TOT ( )
As capacitor charges, VR and I decay logarhythmically
CIRCUIT WITH CAPACITANCE & RESISTANCE IN SERIES
CONTROL OF CURRENT FLOW BY SIZE OF R AND C

SWITCH OPEN SWITCH CLOSED

I I
+ +
R DVA R DVA
- -
C DVB C DVB

THE LARGER THE RESISTANCE (R) ----> THE SMALLER THE INITIAL CURRENT SIZE
THE LONGER IT TAKES FOR CAPACITOR TO CHARGE
THE SLOWER THE DECLINE IN CURRENT FLOW

THE LARGER THE CAPACITANCE (C) ----> THE LONGER IT TAKES FOR CAPACITOR TO CHARGE
THE SLOWER THE DECLINE IN CURRENT FLOW
NO EFFECT ON INITIAL CURRENT SIZE

t1/2-max (sec) = 0.69 x R (W) x C (F)

 CIRCUIT WITH CAPACITANCE & RESISTANCE IN SERIES
CHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF A CAPACITOR
CHARGE SWITCH CLOSED AT t = 0 sec
DISCHARGE SWITCH CLOSED AT t = 10 sec CHARGE SWITCH OPENED AT t = 10 sec

R +
DVA 10 V
(5 W ) -
C DVB
(1 F )

CIRCUIT PROPERTIES
10 2 10
RESISTOR
DVA (volts)

DVB (volts)
VOLTAGE
I (amps)

0 0 0 CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE

-10 -2 -10

0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
t (sec) t (sec) t (sec)
 CIRCUIT WITH CAPACITANCE & RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL
SWITCH OPEN BEFORE t = 0 sec
10

DVA (volts)
SWITCH CLOSED AT t = 0 sec
5

ITOT 0
RA +
DVA -5 0 5 10
(5 W ) 10 V t (sec)
-

I TOT (amps)
2
IB
IC
RB DVB 1
C
(5 W )
(1 F ) ITOT 0

-5 0 5 10
t (sec)

2 10 2
I C (amps)

DVB (volts)

I B (amps) CURRENT FLOW

{
THROUGH
1 5 1 PARALLEL
RESISTOR
0 0 0 IS DELAYED
BY THE
-5 0 5 10 -5 0 5 10 -5 0 5 10
CAPACITOR
t (sec) t (sec) t (sec)
 CIRCUITS WITH TWO BATTERIES IN PARALLEL
SWITCH CLOSED AT t = 0 sec

I B (amps)
RB IB +
0
VA
+ - -5 0 5 10
t (sec)
VB -
VA = VB + IBRB or
/
IB = (VA - VB) RB

In this circuit, (eq.1) VC = VA + IARA = VB + IBRB

what is VC at steady state?
also IA + IB + IC = 0 and IC = 0
therefore, (eq.2) IA = - IB
IC
RB IB RA IA Combining eq. 1 & 2, and converting R to g
VC
+ + VA gA + VB gB
VB - VA - VC = gA + gB

VC is the weighted average of the two batteries,

CONCLUSION: weighted by the conductance through each battery path
 RESISTANCES & CAPACITANCES ALONG AN AXON
ION
CHANNEL (g)
MEMBRANE (C)

CYTOSOL (g)

Lipid bilayer of plasma membrane is NONCONDUCTIVE, but has CAPACITANCE

Ion channels in membrane provide sites through which selective ions flow,
thereby giving some TRANSMEMBRANE CONDUCTANCE

Flow of ions in cytosol only limited by diameter of axon; the WIDER the
axon, the greater the AXIAL CONDUCTANCE
MODELLING THE AXON AS RESISTANCES & CAPACITANCES

RM CM RM CM RM CM

RAXON RAXON RAXON RAXON

The axon can be thought of as a set of segments, each having an

internal axon resistance in series with a transmembrane
resistance and capacitance in parallel

When a point along the axon experiences a voltage drop across

the membrane, the SPEED and AMOUNT of current flow down
the axon is limited by RAXON, RM, and CM.

Axon current nearest the voltage

- source (IA1) does not all proceed
down the axon (IA2). Some current
+ is diverted through membrane
IM1 IC1 conductance (IM1), and current
propogation down axon is delayed
by diversion into the membrane
IA1 IA2 capacitance (IC1).
Next lecture: ION CHANNELS & THE RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

REQUIRED READING: Kandel text, Chapters 7, pgs 105-139