Maxwell's Equations Reveal Electrodynamics

ELECTODYNAMICS: FROM MAXWELL’S
EQUATIONS
Imrana Ashraf Zahid

Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad
Pakistan
15-May-19 Preparatory School to the Winter 1

College on Optics and Energy
Layout
• Electrostatic : Revisited
• Magneto- static : Revisited
• Introduction to Maxwell’s equations
• Electrodynamics before Maxwell
• Maxwell’s correction to Ampere’s law
• General form of Maxwell’s equations
• Maxwell’s equations in vacuum
• Maxwell’s equations inside matter
• The Electromagnetic wave

Nomenclature
• E = Electric field
• D = Electric displacement
• B = Magnetic flux density
• H = Auxiliary field
• = Charge density
• j = Current density
• 0 (permeability of free space) = 410-7T-m/A
• 0 (permittivity of free space) = 8.85410-12N-m2/ C2
• c (speed of light) = 2.99792458108 m/s

Introduction
• Electrostatics
 Electrostatic field : Stationary charges produce

electric fields that are constant in time. The
theory of static charges is called electrostatics.
Stationary charges Constant Electric field;

Electrostatic :Revisited
Coulombs Law
 Q
r
 1 qQ
Test
F ˆ
Charge
r
40 r 2
q
Source
Charge
2
C
 0  8.85 10 12
Permittivity of free space
N  m2
The Electric Field
y
 
F  QE ri
qi q2 P
 1 n
qi

qn Field
E ( P)  rˆ  Point
40 i 1 ri
2 i ri r
E- the electric field of the source charges. x
Physically E(P) Is force per unit

charge exerted on a test charge z
placed at P.

The Electric Field: cont’d
P
r  1 rˆ
E ( P) 
40 Line r 2 dl
 is the line charge density
P
r
 1 rˆ
E ( P) 
40 
Surface
r 2
da
 is the surface charge density

The Electric Field: cont’d
P
r
 1 rˆ
E ( P)  
40 Volume r 2
d
 is the volume charge density

Electric Potential
The work done in moving a test charge Q in an electric field
from point P1 to P2 with a constant speed.
W  Force  dis tan ce

P2
 
W    QE  dl
p1
negative sign - work done is against the field.
For any distribution of fixed charges.
 
 E  dl  0
The electrostatic field is conservative

Electric Potential: cont’d
Stokes’s Theorem gives
 

  E 
 0
E  V
where V is Scalar Potential
The work done in moving a charge Q from infinity to a point
P2 where potential is V
W  QV
V = Work per unit charge
= Volts = joules/Coulomb

Electric Potential : cont’d
Field due to a single point charge q at origin


qdr q
V  
r
40 r 2
40 r
1
F 2
r
1
E 2
r
1
V
r
  1
Gauss’s Law  E  da  Qenc
0
  
Differential form of Gauss’s E 
Law 0
Poisson’s Equation 
 V 
2
0
Laplace's Equation  V 0
2

Electrostatic Fields in Matter
Matter: Solids, liquids, gases, metal, wood and glasses -
behave differently in electric field.
Two Large Classes of Matter

(i) Conductors
(ii) Dielectric
Conductors: Unlimited supply of free charges.
Dielectrics:
• Charges are attached to specific atoms or molecules-
No free charges.
• Only possible motion - minute displacement of positive
and negative charges in opposite direction.
• Large fields- pull the atom apart completely (ionizing it).

Polarization
A dielectric with charge displacements or induced dipole
moment is said to be polarized.
E=0 + E
+ + + + + +
Induced Dipole Moment p  E

The constant of proportionality α is called the atomic polarizability
P ≡ dipole moment per unit volume

The Field of a Polarized Object
Potential of single dipole p is

1 P  rˆ
V 
40 volume r 2
d
 
1  1 
 
1 
V    P  da     P d 
40 
 surface r volume
r 

Potential due to dipoles in the dielectric
The Field of a Polarized Object: cont’d

 b  P  nˆ Bound charges at surface
 
b    P Bound charges in volume
1  1 1 
V     b da   b d 
4 0 
 surface r volume
r 

The total field is field due to bound charges plus due to free charges

Gauss’s law in Dielectric
• Effect of polarization is to produce accumulations of bound
charges.
• The total charge density
 
   f  b  D  da  Q fenc
From Gauss’s law Q fenc -Free charges enclosed
 
 0  E     b   f
Displacement vector
  
 D  f D  0E  P

Magnetostatics : Revisited
• Magnetostatics
 Steady current produce magnetic fields that are

constant in time. The theory of constant current
is called magnetostatics.
Steady currents Constant Magnetic field;

Magnetic Forces
Lorentz Force
• The magnetic force on a segment of current carrying wire is
 
 
Fmag   I  B dl
Fmag
 
  I dl  B  
Equation of Continuity
The current crossing a surface s can be written as
 
   
I   J  da     J d
s v
 
  d   
  J d    d     d
v
dt  t 
Charge is conserved whatever flows out must come at the expense of
that remaining inside - outward flow decreases the charge left in v
  
 J   This is called equation of continuity
t
Equation of Continuity 1
In Magnetostatic steady currents flow in the wire and its
magnitude I must be the same along the line- otherwise charge
would be pilling up some where and current can not be
maintained indefinitely.

0
t
In Magnetostatic and equation of continuity
 
 J  0
Steady Currents: The flow of charges that has been going on
forever - never increasing - never decreasing.

Magnetostatic and Current
Distributions
 I
Biot and Savart Law
dl
  
 0 I  r 
B p  
dB
4  
r
3
dl r
dl

is an element of length.
p
r vector from source to point p.
0 Permeability of free space.
Unit of B = N/Am = Tesla (T)

Biot and Savart Law for Surface
and Volume Currents
 
 0 K  r
B
4  
r
3
da For Surface Currents
 
 0 J  r
B
4  
r
3
d For Volume Currents

Force between two parallel wires
The magnetic field at (2) due to current
I1 is I1 I2
 0 I1
B1  Points inside dF dl
2d B1
Magnetic force law d

 
dF   I 2 dl2  B1 
1 2

Force between two parallel wires
 0 I1 I 2
dF  dl2
2d
The total force is infinite but force per unit length is
dF  0 I1 I 2

dl2 2d
If currents are anti-parallel the force is repulsive.

Straight line currents
The integral of B around a circular path The current is out of the page
of radius s, centered at the wire is
For bundle of straight wires. Wire that

passes through loop contributes only.
 
 B dl   0 I enc
Applying Stokes’ theorem
  
  B  0 J
Divergence and Curl of B
Biot-Savart law for the general case of a volume current reads
  
 0 J r  r r
4  r
B 3
d 

r
    
 B  0 and   B  0 J
Ampere’s Law
  
  B  0 J Ampere’s law
Integral form of Ampere’s law
Using Stokes’ theorem
 
      
  B  da   B  dl 0  J  da
 
 B dl   0 I enc

Vector Potential
The basic differential law of Magnetostatics
  
  B  0 J
 
 B  0
B is curl of some vector field called vector potential A P
Coulomb’s gauge
 
 A  0
  
 
    A  0 J  A   0 J
2

Magnetostatic Field in Matter
 Magnetic fields- due to electrical charges in motion.
 Examine a magnet on atomic scale we would find tiny currents.
 Two reasons for atomic currents.
• Electrons orbiting around nuclei.
• Electrons spinning on their axes.
 Current loops form magnetic dipoles - they cancel each other
due to random orientation of the atoms.
 Under an applied Magnetic field- a net alignment of - magnetic
dipole occurs- and medium becomes magnetically polarized or
magnetized

Magnetization
If m is the average magnetic dipole moment per unit atom
and N is the number of atoms per unit volume, the
magnetization is define as
or
m  Md

Magnetic Materials
Paramagnetic Materials
The materials having magnetization parallel to B are called
paramagnets.
Diamagnetic Materials
The elementary moment are not permanent but are
induced according to Faraday’s law of induction. In these
materials magnetization is opposite to B.
Ferromagnetic Materials
Have large magnetization due to electron spin. Elementary
moments are aligned in form of groups called domain

The Field of Magnetized Object
Using the vector potential
of current loop 
r
Bound Surface Current
Bound Volume Current

Ampere’s Law in Magnetized Material
  
  B  0 J
  
J  Jb  J f
 
1    
 
  
  B  Jb  J f  J f    M
0   
 H  J f
where 
 B 
H M
0
 
 H .dl  I fenc
Integral form

Faraday’s Law of Induction
• Faraday’s Law - a changing -magnetic flux
through circuit induces an electromotive
force around the circuit.

Faraday’s Law of Induction
Induced Electric field intensity in terms of vector potential
For steady currents

V – Scalar potential
Induced emf in a system moving in a changing magnetic field

Maxwell’s Equations

Introduction to Maxwell’s
Equation
• In electrodynamics Maxwell’s equations are a set of four
equations, that describes the behavior of both the electric
and magnetic fields as well as their interaction with matter
• Maxwell’s four equations express
– How electric charges produce electric field (Gauss’s law)

– The absence of magnetic monopoles
– How currents and changing electric fields produces
magnetic fields (Ampere’s law)
– How changing magnetic fields produces electric fields
(Faraday’s law of induction)

Historical Background
• 1864 Maxwell in his paper “A Dynamical Theory of
the Electromagnetic Field” collected all four
equations
• 1884 Oliver Heaviside and Willard Gibbs gave the

modern mathematical formulation using vector
calculus.
• The change to vector notation produced a symmetric

mathematical representation, that reinforced the
perception of physical symmetries between the
various fields.

Electrodynamics Before Maxwell
Gauss’s Law
No name A
E  V 
t
Faraday’s Law
B   A
Ampere’s Law

Electrodynamics Before Maxwell (Cont’d)
Apply divergence to (iii)

  E      B 

 t 
 

t
B  
 
The left hand side is zero, because divergence of a curl is zero.
The right hand side is zero because   B  0.
Apply divergence to (iv)

    B  o   J   
Electrodynamics Before Maxwell
(Cont’d)
• The left hand side is zero, because divergence of a curl is zero.
• The right hand side is zero for steady currents i.e.,
J  0
• In electrodynamics from conservation of charge

J  
t

  0
t
 is constant at any point in space which is wrong.

Maxwell’s Correction to Ampere’s Law
Consider Gauss’s Law
 o E  

t

 o E 

t

 E
   o
t t
D E
 o Displacement current
t t
This result along with Ampere’s law and the conservation of charge equation
suggest that there are actually two sources of magnetic field.
The current density and displacement current.
Maxwell’s Correction to Ampere’s Law
(Cont’d)
Amperes law with Maxwell’s correction
E
  B  o J  o o
t

General Form of Maxwell’s Equations
Differential Form Integral Form
 1
E 
o
 E dS 
S
o V  dV
B  0  BdS  0
S
B  d
 E  
t C E  dl   
dt S
BdS
E d
  B   o J   o o
t  B  d l  o I enc  o o
C

dt S
E dS

Maxwell’s Equations in vacuum
• The vacuum is a linear,
homogeneous, isotropic
and dispersion less medium
• Since there is no current or
E  0
electric charge is present in
the vacuum, hence B  0
Maxwell’s equations reads
as B
 E  
• These equations have a t
simple solution interms of
traveling sinusoidal waves, E
with the electric and   B   o o
magnetic fields direction t
orthogonal to each other
and the direction of travel

Maxwell’s Equations Inside Matter
Maxwell’s equations are modified for polarized
and magnetized materials. For linear materials the
polarization P and magnetization M is given by
P   o e E
M  m H
And the D and B fields are related to E and H by
D   o E  P  1   e   o E   E
 
B  o H  M  1   m  o H   H
Where  e is the electric susceptibility of material,
 m is the magnetic susceptibility of material.

(Cont’d)
• For polarized materials we have bound charges in addition to
free charges

b  P  n
 b    P
• For magnetized materials we have bound currents

Kb  M  n
Jb    M

(Cont’d)
• In electrodynamics any change in the electric polarization
involves a flow of bound charges resulting in polarization
current JP
Polarization current density is due

P
Jp  to linear motion of charge when the
t Electric polarization changes
Total charge density

t   f  b
Total current density
Jt  J f  Jb  J p
(Cont’d)
• Maxwell’s equations inside matter are written as
B P E
t  Jf    M  o
E  o t t
o
B  0 
 B

 o

 

 M  J f  o E  P
 t

B  
 E   
t  H  J f  D
t
E
  B   o J f   o J p   o J b   o o
t

(Cont’d)
• In non-dispersive, isotropic media ε and µ are time-independent
scalars, and Maxwell’s equations reduces to
  E  
  H  0
H
  E  
t
E
 H  J 
t
(Cont’d)
• In uniform (homogeneous) medium ε and µ are independent of
position, hence Maxwell’s equations reads as
D  f  DdS  Q
S
f enc
Generally, ε and µ
can be rank-2
H  0  H dS  0
S
tensor (3X3
matrices)
H d
  E  
t  E  d l   
dt S
H dS describing
C birefringent
E d anisotropic
 H  J f 
t C H  d l  I f enc  dt S D  d S materials.

Potential Formulation of
Electrodynamics 1
• In electrostatic Putting this in Faraday’s Law


 E  0

 E  V
In electrodynamics

 E  0
But

 B  0
 
B   A
Electrodynamics 2
.B  .    A   0
and from

  E    V    A
t

 E  0  B
t
Explain Maxwell’s ii and iii
equations

Electrodynamics 3
Now consider Maxwell’s i and iv equations
As
 
E  Poisson’s Equation
o
 A  
   V  
 t  o
  This replaces Poisson’s
V
2
 A  
t o Equation in electrodynamics

Electrodynamics 4
Now consider
Putting values of E and B we get

    A
 
2
V
  A  o J  o o    o o  2 
 t   t 

Electrodynamics 5
Using vector identity
 
    A      A   A 2
Re-arranging
 2  2 A     V 
  A  o o  2        A  o o      o J
  t     t 
These equation carry all information in
Maxwell’s equations

The Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic Wave Equation
The electromagnetic wave equation is a

second-order partial differential equation that
describes the propagation of electromagnetic
waves through a medium or in a vacuum.
To obtain the electromagnetic wave equation
in a vacuum we begin with the modern
'Heaviside' form of Maxwell's equations.

From Maxwell’s Equations to
the Electromagnetic Waves 1
The Wave Equation

E  0
B  0
Maxwell’s equation in
free space – no B
 E  
charge or no current t
are given as
E
  B   o o
t
From Maxwell’s Equations to the
Electromagnetic Waves 2
Take curl of
B
 E  
t
B
    E    [ ]
t
Change the order of differentiation on the R.H.S

    E   [  B]
t
E
As
  B   o o
Substituting for   B we have
t
B  E
  [  E ]      [  E ]   [  o  o ]
t t t
 E 2
  [  E ]    o  o 2
t
•As µo and εo are constant in time
Using the vector identity     E  (  E )   2 E
gives,  2
E
(  E )   E   o  o 2
2
t
In free space E  0
And we are left with the wave equation
 E 2
 E   o o 2  0
2
t
Similarly the wave equation for magnetic field

  B 2
 B   o o 2  0
2
t
where, 1
c
 o o
Electromagnetic Wave Equation in
Vacuum
 
  E
2   B
2
 E   o o 2  0  B   o o 2  0
2 2
t t
The solutions to the wave equations, when there is no source
charge present can be plane waves - obtained by method of
separation of variables

Electromagnetic Plane waves
• Plane wave - a constant-frequency wave whose
wave-fronts (surfaces of constant phase) are
infinite parallel planes of constant amplitude
normal to the direction of propagation

Real Electromagnetic Plane waves
The real electric and magnetic fields in the form of a mono-
chromatic plane wave with propagation vector kˆ and
polarization nˆ

Homogenous Wave Equations Inside
Matter
The homogeneous form of the equation - written in terms of
either the electric field E or the magnetic field B - takes the
form:
Vacuum Matter
1  E 2
1  E 2
 E
2
 E
2
 o o t 2
 t 2
1  B 2
1  B 2
 B 2
2
 B 2
2
 o o t  t

Homogenous Wave Equations Inside
Matter 1
Permittivity: ε=εrεo (εr is dielectric constant)
Permeability: µ=µrµo (µr is relative permeability ≈1
1 1 1 1
v  
 r 0  r 0 0 0 r r
c =c =n
v n=Refractive Index
n
Energy and Momentum of
Electromagnetic Waves
The energy per unit volume stored in electromagnetic field is
1 1 2
U    o E 
2
B 
2 o 
In the case of monochromatic plane wave
1 2
B  2 E   o o E
2 2
c
 U   o E   o E o cos (kx  t )
2 2 2

Energy and Momentum of
As the wave propagates, it carries this energy along with it. The
energy flux density (energy per unit area per unit time)
transported by the field is given by the poynting vector
S 
1
o
E  B 
For monochromatic plane waves
S  c o Eo cos kx  t i  cUi

ˆ ˆ
2 2

THANK YOU


Maxwell's Equations Reveal Electrodynamics

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Maxwell's Equations Reveal Electrodynamics

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ELECTODYNAMICS: FROM MAXWELL’S

Imrana Ashraf Zahid

15-May-19 Preparatory School to the Winter 1

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 Electrostatic field : Stationary charges produce

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E- the electric field of the source charges. x

Physically E(P) Is force per unit

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 is the surface charge density

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 is the volume charge density

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W  Force  dis tan ce

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Field due to a single point charge q at origin

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Two Large Classes of Matter

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Induced Dipole Moment p  E

P ≡ dipole moment per unit volume

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 Steady current produce magnetic fields that are

Steady currents Constant Magnetic field;

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• The magnetic force on a segment of current carrying wire is

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0 Permeability of free space.

Unit of B = N/Am = Tesla (T)

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For bundle of straight wires. Wire that

Integral form of Ampere’s law

Using Stokes’ theorem

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Bound Surface Current

Bound Volume Current

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For steady currents

Induced emf in a system moving in a changing magnetic field

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– How electric charges produce electric field (Gauss’s law)

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• 1884 Oliver Heaviside and Willard Gibbs gave the

• The change to vector notation produced a symmetric

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Apply divergence to (iii)

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