UNIT III- SUB STRUCTURE

CONSTRUCTION
Techniques of box jacking- pipe jacking- under
water construction of diaphragm walls and
basement- Tunnelling techniques- piling
techniques -well and caisson -sinking
cofferdam -cable anchoring and grouting, sheet
pile-Shoring for deep cutting-well point-
Dewatering and stand by plant equipment for
underground open excavation
TUNNELLING TECHNIQUES
INTRODUCTION
 Tunnels are under-ground passages which are
constructed without disturbing the ground surface.
 The methods involved in under ground operations
are known as Tunnel driving which are constructed
through hills, below ground, rivers, etc
 Tunnels are constructed for transportation
purposes as an artificial passage.
 They are required for many purposes such as
highways, railways, sewage disposal lines, water
supply and other public utility.
NEED
 Tunnels may be constructed because of the
following situations:
a.) when other methods of construction are not
available
b.) when tunneling is an essential element of the
project.
ADVANTAGES
 Free from the hazard of snow and iceberg in
cold regions
 Less cost of travel because of short distance
 Less cost of maintenance
 Easy gradients can be adopted
 No interference on the surface and air routes.
 In general you will find the four types of tunnel
sections which are famous in tunneling:

 Circular shaped tunnels

 Elliptical
 Horse-Shoe shape tunnels
 Vertical walls with arched roof(D-Shaped
tunnels).
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED
 However no specific standards can be set out.
But some assumptions are made which may not
be fulfilled at the time of execution.
 The BIS 5858 parts are given below:
 Part I- Precision survey and setting out
 Part II- Underground excavation in rocks
 Part III- Underground excavation in Soft strata
 Part IV- Tunnel support
 Part V- Concrete lining
 Part VI- Steel lining
USES OF TUNNELS
 Made for highway or railway for regular traffic
and transportation of goods
 Used during the construction of dam, the dam
site should be dry and this is achieved by
diverting the river water through tunnels. They
are called as Diversion tunnels.
 Hydropower tunnels are used to allow water to
pass through them for power generation
 Discharge tunnels used for conveying water
from one point to another
USES OF TUNNELS
 Public utility tunnels for supplying drinking
water, for laying cables, oil supplies, for sewage
disposal.
 In mining tunnels are made to extract minerals
such as coal, iron, etc.
HISTORY OF TUNNEL
 Generally a tunnel is needed when n obstacle
in the form of a hill or rising ground is met
with in the alignment of a railway track or
highway, etc.
 First tunnel made by Egyptians and
Babylonians about 4000 yrs ago
 Width, height and length of this tunnel is
3.6x4.5x910m
HISTORY OF TUNNEL
 Romans adopted the following for tunnel
construction:
 For cooling the rocks, they used vinegar in
place of water to attack rock chemically as well
as mechanically.
 Used fire as an disintegration agent to
disintegrate rocks.
 To work at several points, they introduced
vertical shafts.
FORMATION OF TUNNEL
 Drilling
 blasting
TYPES OF ROCKS ENCOUNTERED IN TUNNEL

 Igneous rock:
• They have max temperature, which need
watering or cold blast
 Sedimentary rocks:

 Have min temperature

 Metamorphic rocks:

 Tunneling depends on hardness of material,

cohesion of particles , etc
NUMBER OF ENTRANCES
 If the length of the tunnel is short, not more
than few 100mts, it may be driven from one end
only.
 For longer tunnels and specially work has to be
completed in short period, tunnel may be driven
from both the ends.
 For longer tunnels, it is advantageous to provide
intermediate openings to remove the muck and
water and also supply of materials, air, light and
other utilities through these openings
NUMBER OF ENTRANCES
 These intermediate openings are called as
Shafts.
SEQUENCE OF OPERATION
1. Setting up and drilling
2. Loading holes with explosives and firing them
3. Ventilations and removing the dust after
explosion
4. Loading and hauling
5. Removing ground water if necessity arises
6. Erecting supports for sides and roofs if
necessary
7. Placing reinforcement
8. Placing concrete lining
METHODS OF TUNNELING
 Choice of method depends on type of
ground.
 Two types are:

a. Tunneling in Hard Rocks

b. Tunneling in Soft rocks Rocks

METHODS OF TUNNELING IN HARD ROCKS

a. Tunneling in Hard Rocks:

i. Full face method
ii. Heading and benching method
iii. Drift method
iv. Pilot tunnel method
v. Perimeter method
TUNNELING IN FIRM GROUND

i) Full face method:

 This method is adopted when the length of the
tunnel is more than 3 meters.
 Large sized tunnels in rocks are always driven
by this method.
 In this method vertical columns are fixed to the
face of the tunnel to which a large number of
drills may be mounted or fixed at any suitable
height
 A series of drill holes are drilled at about 120 cm
center to center in any number of desired rows,
preferably in two rows.
 The size of the holes may vary from 10 to 40
mm.
 These holes are then charged with explosives
and ignited.
 The muck is removed before the next operation
of drilling holes.
 This tunnel is most suitable for diameters less
than 6m and face area less than 19m2
i) Full face method:
HEADING AND BENCHING METHOD
 Tunnel cross section is divided into two parts, the
top portion of the tunnel is known as the heading
and the bottom portion as bench.
 Usually this method is adopted for railway tunnels.
 In this method of tunneling, top portion or heading
will be about 3.70 to 9.6 m ahead of the bottom
portion as shown in the figure below.
 In hard rock which may permit the roof to
withstand without supports, the top heading
generally is advanced by one round of bottom
portion.
HEADING AND BENCHING METHOD
 If the rock is broken then heading may be
driven well ahead of the bottom portion and
after giving proper support to the roof, the
bottom portion is completed.
 In hard rock the heading is bored first and the
holes are driven for the bench portion at the
same time as the removal of the muck.
 This required less explosive than the full face
method, but due to the development of the drill
carriage or jumbo, the use of this method is
decreasing.
DRIFT METHOD

 Drift is a small tunnel, usually its size is

3m*3m.

 In driving a large tunnel it has been found

advantageous to drive a drift first through the
full length or in a portion of the length of the
tunnel prior to the excavating the full bore.
DRIFT METHOD
 The drift may be provided at the center, sides,
bottom or top as desired.
 In this method after driving the drift, the drill
holes are drilled all round the drift in the
entire cross section of the tunnel, filled with
explosives and ignited.
 The rock shatters, the muck removed and the
tunnel expanded to the full cross section.
DRIFT METHOD
 Advantages:
 Quantity of explosives is reduced

Disadvantages:
Driving of main tunnel get dellayed
Drift hole is small, the cost of drilling anmd
handling muck will be high as the work has to
be performed manually instead of power
driven equipment.
PILOT TUNNEL METHOD
 In this method usually two tunnels are to be
driven (1) main tunnel (2) pilot tunnel
 The cross section of pilot tunnel is usually
240cm x 240cm and are driven parallel to the
main tunnel.
 The pilot tunnel which is first driven to the full
length is connected to the centre line of the
main tunnel at many points
PILOT TUNNEL METHOD
 Pilot tunnel also serves the following
purposes:
 It helps in removing muck from the main
tunnel quickly
 It helps in providing proper ventilation in the
main tunnel
 Providing proper lighting in the main tunnel
PERIMETER TUNNEL METHOD
 In this method, the excavation is done along
the perimeter as shown in the sections 1-1, 2-
2, 4-4, 3-5
 This method is known as German method
METHODS OF TUNNELING IN SOFT ROCKS
METHODS OF TUNNELING IN SOFT ROCKS

a. While tunneling in soft grounds, explosives

are not used and tunneling is done with the
hand tools such as pick-axes, shovels etc.
b. During excavation operation supports for soil
are required immediately depending upon the
type of soil.
c. In the old days, timber was the only material
used for supporting soft ground till the
introduction of the steel liner plates few years
ago.
METHODS OF TUNNELING IN SOFT ROCKS
 As heavy supporting system is needed to
support the roof and sides, there is more
obstruction in the movement inside the tunnel,
which reduces the progress of the work.
 Care should taken to ensure that all struts
should be sufficiently strong to bear the
pressure coming on them.
 The method to be adopted in the soft ground
tunneling depends upon the type of ground.
METHODS OF TUNNELING IN SOFT ROCKS

 FOREPOLING METHOD
 NEEDLE BEAM METHOD
 LINER PLATE METHOD
 SHIELD METHOD
 COMPRESSED AIR TUNNELING METHOD