METHODS OF RESEARCH

Methodology

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 DEFINITION
• The purpose of the methodology chapter is to give an
experienced investigator enough information to replicate
the study. Some advisors do not understand this and
require students to write what is, in effect, a textbook. A
research design is used to structure the research and to
show how all of the major parts of the research project,
including the sample, measures, and methods of
assignment, work together to address the central research
questions in the study.
• The chapter should begin with a paragraph reiterating the
purpose of the study. The following subjects may or may
not be in the order required by a particular institution of
higher education, but all of the subjects constitute a
defensible methodology chapter.

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 Appropriateness of the Research Design
• This section is optional in some institutions, but
required by others. Specify that the research for the
dissertation is experimental, quasi-experimental,
correlational, causal-comparative, quantitative,
qualitative, mixed methods, or another design. Be
specific. The designated approach should be defended
by contrasting and comparing it with alternate
methods and rejecting those that do not meet the
needs of the study. This section should not be a
textbook description of various research designs, but a
focused effort to match a rational research design with
the purpose of the study.

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 Research Design
• A qualitative study does not have variables. A scientific
study has variable, which are sometimes mentioned in
Chapter 1 and defined in more depth in Chapter 3.
Spell out the independent and dependent, variables.
An unfortunate trend in some institutions is to repeat
the research questions and/or hypotheses in both
Chapter 1 and Chapter 3, a needless redundancy.
Sometimes an operational statement of the research
hypotheses in null form is given to set the stage for
later statistical inferences. In a quantitative study, state
the level of significance that will be used to accept or
reject the hypotheses.

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 Pilot Study
• In a quantitative study, a survey instrument that is
researcher designed needs a pilot study to validate the
effectiveness of the instrument, and the value of the
questions to elicit the right information to answer the
primary research questions in. In a scientific study, a
pilot study may precede the main observation to
correct any problems with the instrumentation or
other elements in the data collection technique.
Describe the pilot study as it relates to the research
design, development of the instrument, data collection
procedures, or characteristics of the sample.

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 Setting and Participants
• In a quantitative study, describe the geographic location where the study
will take place, cite recognizable landmarks such as a nearby urban city.
Describe the participant pool.
• In a qualitative study, the decision regarding the number of participants in
a study becomes a reflection the study’s purpose. Ten to twelve
participants may prove sufficient in qualitative inquiries involving the
understanding of experiences and perceptions of participants. A
successful purposeful sample in a phenomenological study could range
from 1 to 40.
• Sample size is based on the total number of potential participants. The
required sample size should be determined through a power analysis.
Such an analysis uses the alpha level and the population effect size (the
estimated effect of the independent variable within the target population)
to estimate the number of participants needed to demonstrate an existing
effect. Typically, researchers strive for a power of .80, which refers to an
80% certainty that an existing effect will be found in the sample. The
effect is the difference in perceived effectiveness between mediums.

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 Instrumentation
• In a qualitative study, the instrument used to collect data may be created by the
researcher or based on an existing instrument. If the instrument is researcher
created, the process used to select the questions should be described and
justified. If an existing instrument is used, the background of the instrument is
described including who originated it and what measures were used to validate it.
If a Likert scale is used, the scale should be described. If the study involves
interviews, an interview protocol should be developed that will result in a
consistent process of data collection across all interviews. Two types of questions
are found in an interview protocol: the primary research questions, which are not
asked of the participants, and the interview questions that are based on the
primary research questions and are asked of the participants. Instruments should
be placed in an appendix, not in the body of the text. Most qualitative studies
include both a demographic survey to develop a picture of the participants, and an
interview protocol. If the instrument is researcher created, a pilot study should be
conducted to test the instrument.
• In a scientific study, the instrumentation used to collect data is described in detail,
which may include an illustration of the setup.

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 Procedure
• Fully describe how the data were collected. In a qualitative study,
this is the section where most of the appendices are itemized,
starting with letters of permission to conduct the study and letters
of invitation to participate with attached consent forms. This is also
the place where any study involving human subjects must state that
it is compliant with the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services Code of Federal Regulations.
• A paragraph must be inserted that states the study is deemed to be
one of minimal risk to participants and that the probability and
magnitude of harm or discomfort anticipated in the research will
not be greater than any ordinarily encountered in daily life, or
during the performance of routine physical or psychological
examinations or tests. In a quantitative study, this section will detail
when and how the data were collected.

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 Data Processing and Analysis
• In both qualitative and quantitative studies,
the precise method of how the data were
processed and then analyzed is described.
Increasingly, in qualitative studies, data
collection and analysis is accomplished by
using any one of several data collection and
analysis tools available on the Internet such as
SurveyMonkey. Internet services are fast and
accurate, and produce data that can be
quickly incorporated in Chapter 4.
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 Data Processing and Analysis
• In both qualitative and quantitative studies,
the precise method of how the data were
processed and then analyzed is described.
Increasingly, in qualitative studies, data
collection and analysis is accomplished by
using any one of several data collection and
analysis tools available on the Internet such as
SurveyMonkey. Internet services are fast and
accurate, and produce data that can be
quickly incorporated in Chapter 4.
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 Ethical Considerations
• In a qualitative study, the procedures for the protection of human
participants should be stated. This section is nearly identical in all
qualitative studies, which makes it subject to identification as
plagiarism when submitted to a mechanical plagiarism tool. Ethical
concerns are important, particularly in reference to planning,
conducting, and evaluating research.
• The study should present minimal risk to participants pertaining to
experimental treatment or exposure to physical or psychological
harm. Care should be taken to ensure that the participants fully
understood the nature of the study and the fact that participation is
voluntary. A statement should be made that confidentiality of
recovered data will be maintained at all times, and identification of
participants will not be available during or after the study.

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 Internal and External Validity
• Validity is the criteria for how effective the design is in employing methods of
measurement that will capture the data to address the research questions. There
are two types of validity: internal, and external. Internal validity in quantitative
studies refers to the study’s ability to determine cause and effect.
• Internal validity is a confirmation of the correctness of the study design. Internal
validity can be assured in both qualitative and quantitative studies with pilot
testing of the proposed survey instrumentation to assure that the instrument is
clear and unambiguous. Pilot testing of instruments is a procedure to enable the
researcher to make modifications to an instrument based on results.
• External validityis the extent to which the results of the study can reflect similar
outcomes elsewhere, and can be generalized to other populations or situations.
Regardless of whether a self-designed or validated instrument is used to collect
data, or whether it is a qualitative or quantitative study, how validity will be
assured must be stated. How the study is conducted and reported is illustrative of
the validity and reliability and should align with the theoretical framework in
Chapter 1. Triangulation of the results enhances the validity of findings.
Triangulation validates the methodology by an examination of the results from
several perspectives

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 Summary
• Summarize the research design and prepare
the reader for the next chapter.

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