Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

• Atoms are made of protons, neutrons and

electrons.
• Diagram:

Particle Relative masses Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 1
/1840 -1
 Characteristics of sub-atomic particles
Sub-atomic Proton Neutron Electron
particle
Symbol p or 1H n or 1 e- or 0 e
1 n
Location in Nucleus 0
Nucleus Surrounding-1the
atom nucleus
Actual charge 1.6 x 10-19 0 1.6 x 10-19
(C)
Relative +1 0 -1
charge
Actual mass 1.7 x 10-24 1.7 x 10-24 9.1 x 10-28
(g)
Approximate 1 1 0
relative mass
(a.m.u.)
• The deflection of the 3 types of atomic
particles in an electric field are shown:

– The proton is deflected to the negative plate.

– The electron is deflected to the positive plate.
– The neutron is not deflected.
 Structure of the Atom
1. Nucleon number (A)
= mass number
= the sum of the protons and the neutrons in an atom
=p+n

Proton number (Z)

= atomic number
= the sum of the protons in an atom
=p

2. A

Z X A = nucleon or mass no.

Z = proton or atomic no.
Deduce the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the following
species:
1
1
H 17
8
O

4
2
He 2+ 132
54
Xe

27
13
Al3+ 235
U
92

1
H+
1
45
21
Sc3+

37
17
Cl- 14
6
C

Use the periodic table to write symbols for the following species:
19 protons, 20 neutrons, 18 electrons
8 protons, 8 neutrons, 10 electrons
1 proton, 2 neutrons, 1 electron
82 protons, 126 neutrons, 80 electrons
53 protons, 74 neutrons, 54 electrons
 Isotopes
1. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons.

Example:
2. Isotopes of an element have the same:
(a) proton number
(b) number of electrons in a neutral atom
(c) electronic configuration
(d) chemical properties
3. Isotopes of an element have different
(a) no. of neutrons in an atom
(b) nucleon number
(c) relative isotopic mass
(d) physical properties (melting point, density),
though these differences are very small.
 Atomic Orbitals
• A region in space in which there is the greatest probability of
finding an electron.

n = principal quantum number

s, p, d, f = subshell

Type of subshell number of orbitals

s 1
p 3
d 5
f 7

The orbitals can be represented by a box

Each box can hold maximum 2 electrons.
 Schrödinger used complex differential
equations/wave functions to describe the wave
nature of the electrons inside atoms (wave
mechanic model).

The solutions to the differential equations describes the orbitals of

the electrons inside the concerned atom.
An orbital is a region of space having a high probability of finding
the electron.
 Electrons in orbitals are specified
The solutions of the with a set of numbers called
wave functions are Quantum Numbers:
the orbitals -- which
1. Principal quantum number (n)
are themselves n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …...
equations describing
the electrons. 2. Subsidiary quantum number (l)
l = 0, 1, 2, 3…, n-1
s p d f
3. Magnetic quantum number (m)
m = -l, …, 0, …+l
4. Spin quantum number (s)
s= +½, -½
Principal Subsidiary Number of Symbol Maximum
quantum quantum orbitals (2l+1) of orbitals number of
number number (l) electrons
(n) held
1 0 1 1s 2
2 0 1 2s 2
1 3 2p 6
3 0 1 3s 2
1 3 3p 6
2 5 3d 10
4 0 1 4s 2
1 3 4p 6
2 5 4d 10
3 7 4f 14
3d
4s

3p
3s
2p

2s

Each orbital can

accommodate 2
electrons with
opposite spin.
1s
 Shape of the orbitals

s orbitals
p orbitals
d orbitals
f orbitals
 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

Aufbau principle states that Relative Energies of Orbitals

electrons will enter the possible
orbitals in the order of ascending
energy.
Pauli’s exclusion principle states that no two electrons in the
same atom can have identical values for all four sets of
quantum numbers. Each orbital can hold a maximum of two
electrons of opposite signs

Hund’s rule (Rule of maximum multiplicity) states that

electrons must occupy each energy level singly before pairing
takes place in the orbitals (because of their mutual repulsion).

Carbon
1s 2s 2p
Element Electron-in-box Diagram

1H
1s1
1s

8O 1s22s22p4
1s 2s 2p

11Na 1s22s22p63s1
1s 2s 2p 3s
19 K

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

3d 4s

Can be simplified as:

[Ar]
3d 4s
21Sc
[Ar]
3d 4s

24Cr
[Ar]
3d 4s

Half-filled subshell  extra stability

29Cu
[Ar]
3d 4s

Fully-filled subshell  extra stability

 Electronic Configuration of Atoms and Ions
• Example:
Cl(Z = 17) = 2.8.7 (Form 5)
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 (A-Level)
Writing electronic configuration (for atom)
(a) H (Z=1) 1s1 Must write in
this method
(b) C
(c) O
(d) Ne
(e) Na
(f) Al
(g) Ca
(h) V
(i) Cr
(j) Fe
(k) Cu
Writing electronic configuration (for ion)
(a) O2-
(b) Na+
(c) Mg2+
(d) Cl-
(e) Sc3+
(f) Fe2+
(g) Cu2+
 Ground State and Excited State
1. When the electrons of an atom or ion are in orbitals
of lowest energy, the atoms or ions are said to be in
their ground state.

2. When one or more electrons of an atom or ion

absorb energy and move from their ground state
orbitals into higher energy orbitals, the electrons
are said to be promoted and the atoms excited.
Ground state: an atom is in the ground state when the electrons
are in the orbital of lower available energy level

8O 1s22s22p4
1s 2s 2p

Excited state: an atom is in the excited state when one or more

electrons absorb energy and are promoted to a
higher energy level

8O 1s22s12p5
1s 2s 2p
Isoelectronic: atoms / ions that have the same number of
electrons are known as isoelectronic species

8 O2- 1s22s22p6
1s 2s 2p

7N 3- 1s22s22p6
1s 2s 2p

9F - 1s22s22p6
1s 2s 2p

10Ne 1s22s22p6
1s 2s 2p
 Ionisation Energy (IE)
• The FIRST ionisation energy of an element is
the amount of energy required to remove one
electron from a mole of GASEOUS atoms
producing one mole of gaseous cations.

X (g) → X+ (g) + e IE1 First ionisation energy

X+ (g) → X2+ (g) + e IE2 Second ionisation energy
X2+ (g) → X3+ (g) + e IE3 Third ionisation energy
 Example
Write equation to represent the first IE of
(a) Na
(b) Mg
(c) Fe
 Factors Influencing IE
1. nuclear charge
– As the nuclear charge increases
• its attraction for the outermost electron increases
• more energy is required to remove an electron
• IE increases

2. Size of atom/ion
– As the atomic size ↑
• The attraction of the positive nucleus for the outermost
electron ↓
• less energy is required to remove an electron
• IE ↓
3. Screening (or shielding) effect
(This is the repelling effect of the outermost
electrons experience from the inner electrons)
– The outermost electron is screened (shielded)
from the attraction of the nucleus by the repelling
effect of the inner electrons.
– As shielding ↑,
• the attraction of the positive nucleus for the negative
electrons ↓
• less energy is required to remove an electron
• IE ↓
 shells For all atoms:
• The successive ionisation
energies increase. As each
electron is removed, the ion
formed becomes more
positively charged.
Removing the next electron
is more difficult and requires
more energy.
• Within the set of successive
ionisation energies, there are
one or more particularly large
increases. This indicates the
removal of electrons from
different shells that have
differing energies.
Successive ionisation energies for potassium

level 1

level 2

level 3

level 4

The different “jumps” are evidence for the arrangement of

electrons in energy levels and sub-levels
 The Trends in IE Down a Group and
Across a Period
• Down the Group
– Atomic size increases
– Nuclear charge increases
– Screening effect increases
– However, screening effect outweigh the increase in
the nuclear charge.
– Hence, net nuclear charge decreases
– Less energy is needed to remove the electron from
the atom
– IE decreases
• Across the period
– Atomic size decreases
– Nuclear charge increases
– However, screening effect remains virtually
unchanged as the electrons are added to the same
shell.
– Hence, the net nuclear charge increases
– More energy is needed to remove the electron
from the atom
– IE increases
 Exception
1. Why Al has lower IE1 than Mg?

2. Why S has lower IE1 than P?

 Deduce Electronic Configurations from
Sussessive Ionisation Energies Data

The table above shows the successive

ionisation energies for element X.
State to which group does X belong and explain
your answer.