of Materials, 6th Ed
Donald R. Askeland – Pradeep P. Phulé
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Objectives of Chapter 2
The goal of this chapter is to describe the
underlying physical concepts related to the
structure of matter.
To examine the relationships between
structure of atoms-bonds-properties of
engineering materials.
Learn about different levels of structure i.e.
atomic structure, nanostructure,
microstructure, and macrostructure.
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Chapter Outline
2.1 The Structure of Materials:
Technological Relevance
2.2 The Structure of the Atom
2.3 The Electronic Structure of the
Atom
2.4 The Periodic Table
2.5 Atomic Bonding
2.6 Binding Energy and Interatomic
Spacing
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Introduction
The Structure of the materials
The structure of a material is the arrangement of atoms
and ions in the material.
The atomic structure is the nucleus consisting of protons
and neutrons and the electrons surrounding the nucleus.
The dia of atoms is measured in angstrom
The amorphous materials have a short range ordering of
atoms or ions. While crystalline exhibit periodic
arrangement of atoms and ions.
The nanostructure is the structure of a material at
length scale of 1 to 100 nm.
The microstructure is the structure of a material at
length scale of 100 to 100000 nm. Where the
macrostructure is at a length scale of > 100 um.
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Section 2.1
The Structure of Materials:
Technological Relevance
Batteries
Cars
Nanotechnology
Micro-electro-
mechanical (MEMS)
systems-Airbag
sensors
Nanostructures
Figure 2.1
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Table 2.1 Levels of Structure
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Table 2.1 (Continued)
Level of Structure Example of Technologies
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Example 2.1
Calculate the Number of Atoms in Silver
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Example 2.2
Nano-Sized Iron-Platinum Particles
For Information Storage
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Example 2.2 SOLUTION
The radius of a particle is 1.5 nm.
Volume of each iron magnetic nano-particle
= (4/3)(1.5 10-7 cm)3
= 1.4137 10-20 cm3
Density of iron = 7.8 g/cm3. Atomic mass of iron
is 56 g/mol.
Mass of each iron nano-particle
= 7.8 g/cm3 1.4137 10-20 cm3
= 1.102 10-19 g.
One mole or 56 g of Fe contains 6.023 1023
atoms, therefore, the number of atoms in one
Fe nano-particle will be 1186.
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Section 2.3 The Electronic Structure
of the Atom
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Section 2.3 The Electronic Structure
of the Atom
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© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™
Figure 2.8 The atomic structure of sodium(Na), atomic
number 11, showing the electrons in the K, L, and M quantum
shells.
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Figure 2.10 The electronegativities of selected elements
relative to the position of the elements in the periodic table
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Electronic structure:
Aufbau principle
The aufbau principle is the graphical device used to determine
the order in which the energy levels of quantum shells are filled
by electrons.
Electronic structure of Fe with atomic number of 26.
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Example 16.9
Comparing Electronegativities
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Example 16.9
Comparing Electronegativities
Example
SOLUTION
The electronic structures, obtained from Appendix C, are:
Ca: 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s2
Br: 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s24p5
Calcium has two electrons in its outer 4s orbital and bromine
has seven electrons in its outer 4s4p orbital. Calcium, with an
electronegativity of 1.0, tends to give up electrons and has low
electronegativity, but bromine, with an electronegativity of 2.8,
tends to accept electrons and is strongly electronegative. This
difference in electronegativity values suggests that these
elements may react readily to form a compound.
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Section 2.4 The Periodic Table
Periodic table gives valuable information about specific
elements such as atomic size, melting point, chemical
reactivity etc.
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© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™
© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™
Section 2.4 The Periodic Table
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Section 2.5 Atomic Bonding
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The Metallic bond
© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™
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© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™
Figure 2.13 When voltage is applied to a metal, the electrons
in the electron sea can easily move and carry a current
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Example
Calculating the Conductivity of Silver
Calculate the number of electrons capable of conducting an
electrical charge in ten cubic centimeters of silver.
Example 2.5 SOLUTION
The valence of silver is one, and only the valence electrons are
expected to conduct the electrical charge. From Appendix A, we
find that the density of silver is 10.49 g/cm3. The atomic mass of
silver is 107.868 g/mol.
Mass of 10 cm3 = (10 cm3)(10.49 g/cm3) = 104.9 g
(104.9 g )(6.023 1023 atoms / mol)
Atoms = 5.85 1023
107.868 g / mol
Electrons = (5.85 1023 atoms)(1 valence electron/atom)
= 5.85 1023 valence electron/atom per 10 cm3
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The covalent Bond
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The Ionic Bonding
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Example
Describing the Ionic Bond Between
Magnesium and Chlorine
Describe the ionic bonding between magnesium (12)
and chlorine (17).
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Example
Describing the Ionic Bond Between
Magnesium and Chlorine
Describe the ionic bonding between magnesium and
chlorine.
Example 2.8 SOLUTION
The electronic structures and valences are:
Mg: 1s22s22p6 3s2 valence = 2
Cl: 1s22s22p6 3s23p5 valence = 7
Each magnesium atom gives up its two valence
electrons, becoming a Mg2+ ion. Each chlorine atom
accepts one electron, becoming a Cl- ion. To satisfy the
ionic bonding, there must be twice as many chloride
ions as magnesium ions present, and a compound,
MgCl2, is formed.
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Figure 2.22 (a) In
polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
the chlorine atoms
attached to the polymer
chain have a negative
charge and the
hydrogen atoms are
positively charged. The
chains are weakly
bonded by van der
Waals bonds. This
additional bonding
makes PVC stiffer, (b)
When a force is applied
to the polymer, the van
der Waals bonds are
broken and the chains
slide past one another
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Section 2.6 Binding Energy and
Interatomic Spacing
Interatomic spacing is the equilibrium spacing between
the centers of two atoms.
Binding energy is the energy required to separate two
atoms from their equilibrium spacing to an infinite
distance apart.
Modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress-strain
curve in the elastic region (E).
Yield strength is the level of stress above which a
material begins to show permanent deformation.
Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) is the amount by
which a material changes its dimensions when the
temperature changes.
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Figure 2.23 Atoms or
ions are separated by
and equilibrium
spacing that
corresponds to the
minimum inter-atomic
energy for a pair of
atoms or ions (or
when zero force is
acting to repel or
attract the atoms or
ions)
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