NOISE

 Any unwanted form of electrical energy, usually random

or aperiodic in character, which tends to interfere with
the proper and easy reception and reproduction of
transmitted signals.
 DISTORTION and INTERFERENCE

DISTORTION INTERFERENCE

 Any waveform  Contamination by

perturbation or extraneous or external
deviation caused signals from human
by the imperfect sources, other
response of the transmitters, power lines,
system to the machinery, switching
desired signal. circuits, and related
sources.
 RESULTS OF NOISE

hiss - loudspeakers

snow or confetti – TV CRT

bit error – digital transmission

 GENERAL CATEGORIES of NOISE

CORRELATED UNCORRELATED
NOISE NOISE

 unwanted electrical  noise present

energy that is present as
a direct result of a signal,
such as harmonic and
intermodulation
distortion.
regardless of whether
there is a signal or
none.
 CORRELATED NOISE

INTERMODULATION HARMONIC
DISTORTION DISTORTION

 unwanted cross-product  unwanted multiples of a

(sum and difference) single frequency created
frequencies created when amplified in non-
when two or more linear device.
signals are amplified in a
non-linear device. % THD = Vhigher/Vfundamental
 UNCORRELATED NOISE

EXTERNAL

 noise created outside the

receiver and allowed to
enter the circuit

INTERNAL

 noise created within the receiver or

the device.
 EXTERNAL NOISE

ATMOSPHERIC NOISE (STATIC)

 caused by lightning discharges in thunderstorms and other
natural electric disturbances occurring in the atmosphere.
 less severe at frequencies above 30 MHz.
EXTRATERRESTRIAL NOISE (SPACE NOISE)
 Severe at 10 MHz – 1.45 GHz
SOLAR NOISE
 Constant noise radiation from the sun (6000°C). Due to
electrical disturbances due to solar cycle activities that
repeat every 11 years and supercycles every 99 years.
COSMIC NOISE (THERMAL, BLACKBODY,
GALACTIC)
 Noise radiated from distant stars and other heavenly
bodies.

INDUSTRIAL NOISE (MAN MADE NOISE)

 Noise coming from automobile and aircraft ignition,
electric motors and switching equipment, fluorescents,
leakage from high voltage lines and a multitude of other
heavy electric machines.
 Severe at 15 – 160 MHz
 INTERNAL NOISE

THERMAL AGITATION NOISE

 White, Gaussian, Johnson Noise
 Due to the rapid and random motion of the molecules,
atoms and electrons of which any component (resistor)
made of.

Noise Power Pn=kTB

Noise Voltage Vn=√4kTBR

Noise Current In=√4kTBG

 Noise Bandwidth and Noise
Voltage of RC Network
Bn = 1/4RC fc=1/2piRC

Vn = √(kT/C)

SHOT NOISE
 Random variations in the arrival of electrons (or holes) at
the output electrode of an amplifying device.
 When amplified, it is supposed to sound as though a
shower of lead shot were falling on a metal sheet.

in=√(2eiB)
TRANSIT TIME NOISE
 High frequency noise resulting from delayed travel of
electrons from emitter-collector of a vacuum tube or
transistor.
 MISCELLANEOUS NOISE

FLICKER NOISE (MODULATION NOISE, PINK

NOISE)
 Low frequency noise from carrier density fluctuations. It is
proportional to emitter current and junction temperature,
inversely proportional to frequency (negligible above 500
Hz).

RESISTANCE NOISE
 Due to the base (greatest contributor), emitter and collector
internal resistance.
NOISE in MIXERS
 Low transconductance of mixers compared to amplifiers and
inadequate image frequency rejection.

CROSSTALK
 Interference signal from one channel to another.
AVALANCHE NOISE
 Large noise spikes due to collision that result in avalanching
action.

BURST NOISE (POP-CORN)

 Low frequency noise observed in BJT which appears as a
series of burst of two or more levels.
PARTITION NOISE
 Random fluctuations in the division of current in two or
more electrodes.

IMPULSE NOISE
 Non-continuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise spikes
of short duration and of relatively high amplitude. The spikes
are called HITS.
 NOISE ANALYSIS and CALCULATIONS

ADDITION of NOISE due to SEVERAL SOURCES

Vn total = √4kTBRt

RESISTORS IN SERIES

Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 + . . .

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL:

Rt = 1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + . . .)

 ADDITION of NOISE due to SEVERAL
AMPLIFIERS in CASCADE:

A1 A2

R1 R2 R3
Vn1
Vn3
Vn2

 When a noise resistance is transferred from the output of a

stage to its input, it must be divided by the square of the
voltage gain of that particular stage.
ADDITION of NOISE due to SEVERAL AMPLIFIERS
in CASCADE:

Vn total = √4kTBReq
Req = equivalent noise resistance as referred to the input

Req = R1 + R2/A12 + R3/A12 A22

 SIGNAL-to-NOISE RATIO (S/N)
Relative strength of the signal power to the noise power at
the same point

S/N = (signal power/noise power)

= (Ps/Pn) ; power ratio

S/N = (signal voltage/noise voltage)2

= (Vs/Vn)2 ; voltage ratio

 NOISE FACTOR (F) and NOISE FIGURE (NF)

The figure of merit that indicates the degradation in the

signal-to-noise ratio as the signal propagates through an
amplifier or a communications system.

a. NOISE FACTOR from SIGNAL to NOISE RATIO

F = (input S/N) / (output S/N)

NFdB = 10 log F
b. NOISE FACTOR from EQUIVALENT NOISE
RESISTANCE

F = 1 + (Req’/Ra) Req’ = Req - Rt

c. Noise Factor in Terms of Equivalent Noise
Temperature

F = 1 + (Teq/T0)
Teq = T0 (F – 1)
 NOISE ANALYSIS and CALCULATIONS

CARRIER to NOISE RATIO (C/N)

Is the ratio of the wideband carrier to the wideband noise

power

The signal-to-noise ratio measured before the signal is

demodulated, that is, while it still has a carrier.
 NOISE UNITS and LEVELS

Test tone

A pure signal at a signal frequency and power level

Usual reference 1000 Hz at 1 mW applied at a point of

0 relative level

Weighting Curve

Curve showing the relative interfering effects of

sinusoidal tones compared to a reference frequency
 Weighting Network
Equalizer which attenuates frequencies in the same manner
as would be done by the average ear with the specific
listening apparatus to which the weighting refers.

Relative Level

The difference between the power of a signal at one point

and its power a reference point
1. dBrn (144 Weighting
Curve, Western Electric
144 Handset)
dB above reference noise
Reference level: -90 dBm at 1
kHz (pure tone)
2. dBa (F1A Weighting
Curve, F1A Handset)
dB above reference noise
adjusted
Reference level: -85 dBm at 1
kHz (pure tone)
-82 dBm at 3 kHz (random,
white noise)
 3. dBrnC (C-Message 4. pWp (pW
Weighting Curve, 500 psophometrically
type handset) weighted)
dB above reference noise Psophometrically weighted
picowatt
Reference level: -90 dBm at
1 kHz (pure tone) Reference level: -90 dBm at
800 Hz
-88 dBm at 3 kHz (random,
white noise)
 5. dBaO 6. dBrnCO
dBa adjusted at 0 dBm level dBrnC at 0 dBm level point
point
 dB CALCULATIONS

DECIBEL

Comparison of two
powers and does not
A means of
express a fixed value
expressing
unless it refers to dB
change in
above or below
power level
some specific
reference point
 Change in POWER
PdB = 10 log (Pout/Pin)
expressed in Decibels

Change in VOLTAGE VdB = 20 log Vout/Vin ;

expressed in Decibels (if R2=R1)

Change in CURRENT IdB = 20 log Iout/Iin ;

expressed in Decibels (if R2=R1)
POWER with RESPECT to SPECIFIC
REFERENCE POWER LEVEL

dBk = 10 log (Plevel/1x103 W)

dBw = 10 log (Plevel/1 W)
dBm = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-3 W)
dBu = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-6 W)
dBn = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-9 W)
dBp = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-12 W)
dBf = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-15 W)
 dB OPERATIONS

dB1 + dB2 = dBT

dB + dBm = dBm
dB + dBu = dBu
dB + dBk = dBk
dBm1 + dBm2 Invalid operation

dBw1 + dBw2 Note: convert power

levels into watts and
dBk + dBw perform the operation
 POWER EXPRESSED in NEPERS

When
Power can also be defined in defined as
terms of the natural the natural
logarithm to the base logarithm,
e=2.718281828. the unit is
Neper.
PNeper = ½ ln (Pout/Pin)

1 Neper = 8.686 dB ; 1 dB = 0.1151 Neper