Heredity

• Gregor Mendel (1822-

1884) conducted studies
that proved the patterns
of inheritance among
living things using pea
plants.
• It pointed out that
certain materials are
being transferred from
parents to offspring
during reproduction
• The materials are
responsible for the
expression of traits
• In 1869, a physician
named Johann Friedrich
Miescher (1844-1895)
discovered a particular
nuclei of cells from pus.
• He called it “nuclein”
which eventually
became known as
deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA)
 • DNA is a molecule that
DNA as Blueprint
contains the essential
information that
instructs how an
organism develops and
functions
• It is composed of sugar,
a phosphate, and a
nucleobase
DNA as Blueprint • The unique sequencing
of the four nucleobases
in the DNA
- Adenine
- Thymine
- Guanine
- Cytosine
results in diversity among
living things
• DNA dictates how an
individual would look
like, determines the
diseases he/she is prone
to having, and identifies
his/her ancestors
 • DNA can be copied and
transferred properly
into new cells

DNA Replication
DNA Packaging • The long strand of DNA
molecules are arranged
properly especially
before cell division
where DNA copies are
segregated into two new
daughter cells and
packed into structures
called chromosomes
DNA Packaging • It includes proteins
called histones where
DNA strands loop
around
• Each unit comprising
eight histones with
coiled DNA is called
nucleosome
• All the cells (except sex
cells) forming the body of
a living thing have the
same number of
chromosomes
• Chromosomes among
species may vary
Human beings= 46 (23 pairs)
Pineapples= 50 Tigers= 38
dogs= 78 gorillas= 48
 • The sections of a very
long DNA strand that
DNA to RNA express certain traits are
called genes
• The overall appearance of
the body and all bodily
functions are influenced
by the type of proteins
that cell produce, and the
genes in the DNA provide
the necessary information
on the kind of protein that
should be made.
• DNA cannot directly
manufacture proteins
because it is confined
inside the nucleus of the
cell.
• Sections of DNA that
contain vital information
are transcribed into
ribonucleic acid (RNA) that
serves as templates and
tools for protein synthesis
• The copying of DNA
templates into RNA is
called transcription
• An RNA polymerase
moves along the length
of the section of DNA
that needs to be
transcribed
• The newly formed RNA
strand separates from
its DNA counterpart to
be exported outside the
cell nucleus counterpart
to be exported outside
the cell nucleus.
• The process of
transcription may yield
a specific kind of RNA
depending on the
section of the DNA
being transcribed
 1. Messenger RNA
(mRNA)
- Serves as templates for
protein synthesis
Types of RNA
 2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- The assembly site for
proteins

Types of RNA
Types of RNA 3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
-delivers the building
blocks of protein (amino
acids) to be assembled
 FIRST SECOND POSITION THIRD
POSITION U C A G POSITION
U PHE SER TYR CYS U
PHE SER TYR CYS C
LEU SER STOP STOP A
LEU SER STOP TRP G
C LEU PRO HIS ARG U
LEU PRO HIS ARG C
LEU PRO GIN ARG A
LEU PRO GIN ARG G
A ILE THR ASN SER U
ILE THR ASN SER C
ILE THR LYS ARG A
MET THR LYS ARG G
G VAL ALA ASP GLY U
VAL ALA ASP GLY C
VAL ALA GLU GLY A
VAL ALA GLU GLY G
 • The building blocks of
protein are called amino
acids
• The mRNA transcribed
RNA to Protein from DNA provides the
necessary information
about the kind of amino
acid to be assembled
• Har Gobind Khorana,
Marshall Nirenberg and
others discovered that
the sequencing of
mRNA strand can be
decoded to determine
what amino acid will be
produced
• Each triple nucleobases
is called codon
 FIRST SECOND POSITION THIRD
POSITION U C A G POSITION
U PHE SER TYR CYS U
PHE SER TYR CYS C
LEU SER STOP STOP A
LEU SER STOP TRP G
C LEU PRO HIS ARG U
LEU PRO HIS ARG C
LEU PRO GIN ARG A
LEU PRO GIN ARG G
A ILE THR ASN SER U
ILE THR ASN SER C
ILE THR LYS ARG A
MET THR LYS ARG G
G VAL ALA ASP GLY U
VAL ALA ASP GLY C
VAL ALA GLU GLY A
VAL ALA GLU GLY G
 • Translation is the
synthesis of protein
linking amino acids into
First Stage polypeptide chains
(Initiation) • The first stage of
translation is called
initiation; this is when
the mRNA and a tRNA
bind to a small
ribosomal unit
• The start codon (AUG)
of mRNA aligns with a
tRNA part called
anticodon
 • Amino acids assemble
into polypeptide chains
• A second tRNA
containing amino acid
Second Stage attaches to the second
(Elongation) binding (A site)
• An enzyme links the
two amino acids into a
peptide bond
 • Amino acids assemble
into polypeptide chains
• A second tRNA
containing amino acid
Second Stage attaches to the second
(Elongation) binding (A site)
• An enzyme links the
two amino acids into a
peptide bond
 • The first tRNA is
released from the
ribosome while the
second tRNA moves to
Second Stage the first binding site ()P
(Elongation) site
• The process is repeated
until a long polypeptide
is formed
 • This happens when the
codon at the length of
mRNA strand is any of
the stop codons that
Last Stage does not correspond to
(Termination) an amino acid
 • A change in the gene
code or sequencing of
the DNA results in the
production of a protein
different from what is
MUTATION needed
• An inappropriate
protein produced leads
to malfunction or death
of a cell
 • The change in DNA
sequencing is called
mutations and
What causes the mutations are brought
DNA sequence to about by exposure to
change? mutagens
 • Strong electromagnetic
wavelengths (ultraviolet
light)
• Free radicals (tobacco
smoke)
Mutagens
• Mutation can also be a
result of errors in DNA
replication, when
nucleobases are
wrongly paired
• Some mutations could
persist and could even
be passed down to
generations
Single base
change
Addition
Deletion
 • Uncontrolled cell
division may lead to
growth of cells into a
lump or mass of tissue
CANCER that does not serve any
purpose in the body
• Tumor formation are
caused by changes in
DNA sequencing
• Benign tumors- the
cells only grow very
slowly and the cells
forming them do not
migrate to the other
parts of the body
• Malignant tumor-
composed of cells that
divide rapidly.
It may break off and travel
via blood vessels and
lymph nodes to spread and
invade different parts of
the body (metastasis)
• Carcinogens are agents
that may cause changes
in DNA that could lead
to cancer
Examples:
- Ultraviolet radiation
- X-rays
- Radioactive substances
- Some components of
tobacco smoke
EVOLUTION
 • Is the gradual change in
a population’s genetic
and physical traits
• This can only be
Evolution observed after a long
period of time
 • Around 2500 years ago,
the Greek philosopher
Anaximander (611BC-54
BC) conceived the idea
Early Theories of that all living things
Evolution started their existence as
simple organisms that
became more complex
as time went by.
Theory of • Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Acquired Trait came up with a theory as
Lamarckism
• According to this theory,
organisms are able to
enhance or change certain
body parts depending on
how seldom they use it,
and the acquired changes
can be passed on to their
offspring
Theory of Natural • An English naturalist and
Selection geologist named Charles
Darwin (1809-1882) was
best known for his study
about evolution.
• His book entitled On the
Origin of Species by
Means of Natural
Selection In 1895 provided
the most acceptable
explanation as to how
living things evolve
• The formulation of
Darwin’s Theory began
when he embarked on a
journey around the
world on board the
HMS Beagle in
December 1831
• He spent almost five years
visiting different places
while observing and
collecting thousands of
specimens
• According to Darwin,
evolution can be
compared to artificial
selection done by farmers
to improve their livestock
• They only bred animals
with favorable
characteristics, while the
ones with unfavorable
characteristics were
eliminated.
• This method can also be
seen working normally in
nature
• Organisms with the traits
that enable them to adapt
to environmental changes
or with more suited traits
to compete with other
organisms belonging to
the same species are more
likely to survive and
reproduce
• Natural selection proves
that minor differences
among the animals in a
species are significant so
that some can cope with
the drastic changes in
the environment
Evidence of Evolution
 • Fossils are the remains
Fossil Records or traces of living things
preserved in rocks
• The oldest fossils found
are the structures called
stromatolites, which are
built by single-celled
plants that existed 3.5
billion years ago.
• Fossils in different
layers of rocks give
humans the idea that
the fossilized organisms
existed and how these
organisms gradually
evolved through
millions of years
• The layers of rocks took
millions of years to form
and some are thousands
of meters thick
• Geologist use the
different layers of rocks
as a basis for the time
frame in earth’s history
• Termed as the
geologic time
frame scale,
geologists
assigned sections
of the rock layers
correspond to
geologic eras,
periods, epochs
and ages
Homologous • Are body parts that are
Structures present in different
animal species but are
modified to perform
different structures
• Scientists consider
homologous structures as
very clear evidence that
new species arise from the
old ones
• Common ancestry
Vestigial
• A body part that seems
Structures
to have lost its function
due to evolution
Genetics • It is known that traits or
genes are encoded in
DNAs and are passed
on during fertilization
• DNA sequencing shows
that certain animals that
have been suspected of
having common
ancestry indeed have
similarities in their
DNA sequence
Components of
an Ecosystem
 • Characterized by relations
between organisms and
how these organism and
how these organisms
Ecosystem interact with nonliving
environment they live in
• The ecosystem is
formed by:
- Biotic (living)
- Abiotic (nonliving)
components.
• Living things can be
classified into species, or
group of similar
individuals which have
genes that are unique to
their group and are able
to reproduce
• To date, about 1.9
million living species
had been identified,
named and classified
 • A community is an
association or interaction
Ecological of two or more
populations of different
Structure species in an area
• Communities are found in
habitats, the areas where
the abiotic components
present are suited for the
needs of certain
population in community
• One of the most
important interaction
between living thins in a
habitat is energy flow.
• Plants are called
producers or autotrophs
because they can
harness the sun’s energy
through photosynthesis
• The sequencing of how
energy is passed from
producers to consumers
is called food chain, and
the position each
organism occupies is
called trophic level.
• Food web
• Decomposers are
organisms that break
down the cells and/ or
tissues of dead creatures
into useful substance.
Ecological • The ecological pyramid
Balance is a representation of the
population of species
that exists in the same
ecosystem
• The abiotic and biotic
components that are in
short supply and limit
the population growth
of species are called
limiting factors.
 • Is the disturbance of
Ecological ecological balance.
• Characterized by the
Collapse mas extinction of
different species in a
community
• Are caused by
disastrous events that
disrupt the food web
• The maximum number
of living things a habitat
can sustain is its
carrying capacity.
I. Enumeration
1-3) Composition of DNA
4-7) 4 nucleobases of DNA
8-12) 5 amino acids
13-15) 3 stages of protein synthesis
16-17) 2 theories of evolution
18-20) 3 evidence of evolution
II. Determine the amino acid coded in each codon
and its anticodon.
Codon Amino Acid Anticodon
1. UAC
2. GGG
3. GCU
4. UCG
5. UUU
III. IDENTIFICATION
1. It serves as the blueprint that instruct how to build
and maintain the body.
2. He proved the patterns of inheritance using the
pea plants.
3. Humans have ____ chromosomes
4. Thymine is replaced with __________ in RNA.
5. It is the synthesis of protein by linking amino acids
into polypeptides.
6. The change in the DNA sequencing.
7. These are agents that may cause changes in DNA
and could lead to cancer.
8. He proposed the study theory of natural selection.
9. He came up with the theory known as Lamarckism.
10. It is the gradual change in a population’s genetic
and physical traits.
11. The oldest fossils
12. Body parts that seems to lost its function due to
evolution.
13. The remains or traces of living things preserved in
rocks
14. Tumors that grow very slowly and the cells do not
migrate.
15. This tumor can lead to cancer.