Transmission Media

Stallings Chapter 4
Recall
• Transmission Media: physical path between transmitter and
receiver
• Guided Media: guided along a solid medium
• Unguided Media: wireless transmission occurs through the
atmosphere, outer space, or water
Considerations for Transmission Media
Design
• Bandwidth: The greater the bandwidth of a signal, the higher the
data rate that can be achieved
• Transmission Impairments: Limit the maximum distance
• Guided Media: less expensive & simpler = greater attenuation
• Interference: Interference from competing signals in overlapping
frequency bands can distort or cancel out a signal
• More prevalent in unguided media, but there are some cases in guided
media
• Number of receivers: point-to-point vs. multipoint
Transmission Media and EM Wavelengths
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Least expensive and most widely used guided transmission medium
• Consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern
• Wire pair acts as a single communication link
• A number of these pairs are bundled together into a cable by
wrapping them in a tough protective sheath, or jacket
• Basic: one pair, Long distances: hundreds of pairs
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Twisting: Reduce crosstalk interference
• Dimensions:
• Inner wires: 0.4 to 0.9 mm thick
• Twist length: 5 to 15cm
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Applications:
• Most common in all analog and digital communications
• Telephone networks
• Subscriber loops (public telephones)
• Private branch exchange (PBX)
• LAN connection between buildings
• 100Mbps (100Base-T)
• 1Gbps (1000Base-T)
• Long distance DSL networks (>4Mbps)
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Transmission characteristics:
• For analog transmission: amplifiers are needed every 5-6km
• For digital transmission: repeaters are needed every 2-3km
• Most limited in bandwidth/data rate than any other guided media
• Susceptible to signal reflections, or return loss, caused by impedance
mismatches along the length of the transmission line and crosstalk
from adjacent twisted pairs or twisted-pair cables
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Unshielded Twisted Pair
• Consists of one or more twisted-pair cables, typically enclosed within
an overall thermoplastic jacket, which provides no electromagnetic
shielding
• Subject to external electromagnetic interference
• Most common form: voice-grade telephone wire
• Also used in high-speed LAN, which has four pairs of wires in each
jacket
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Unshielded Twisted Pair
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Shielded Twisted Pair
• Grants resistance to noise generated from the environment
• Three different configurations:
• Each pair of wires is individually shielded with metallic foil, generally
referred to as foil twisted pair (FTP)
• There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a
group). This configuration is sometimes designated as screened
twisted pair (F/UTP).
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Shielded Twisted Pair
• Grants resistance to noise generated from the environment
• Three different configurations:
• There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the
entire group of wires. This is referred to as fully shielded twisted pair
or shielded/foil twisted pair (S/FTP).
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Shielded Twisted Pair
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Categories: according to Electronic Industries Association published
standard ANSI/EIA/TIA-568, Commercial Building
Telecommunications Cabling Standard
• Category 5e/Class D: 1-Gbps Ethernet that utilize bidirectional and full
four-pair transmission schemes
• Category 6/Class E: greater performance margin than Cat 5e
• Category 6A/Class EA: 10-Gbps Ethernet applications
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Categories: according to Electronic Industries Association published
standard ANSI/EIA/TIA-568, Commercial Building
Telecommunications Cabling Standard
• Category 7/Class F: Fully shielded twisted pair, next generation 10-Gbps
Ethernet
• Category 7A/Class FA: extend bandwidth to 1GHz, also fully shielded
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Key Performance Parameters
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Key Performance Parameters
• Insertion Loss: amount of attenuation across the link from the
transmitting system to the receiving system
• Increasing function of frequency
• Near-end crosstalk (NEXT) loss: amount of loss caused by the coupling
of the signal from one pair of conductors to another pair
• dB measurement between transmitted signal power Pt and crosstalk
power level Pc
• Related to total attenuation AdB between Pt and received signal power Pr
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Key Performance Parameters
• Near-end crosstalk (NEXT) loss
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Key Performance Parameters
• Near-end crosstalk (NEXT) loss
Guided Media
Twisted Pair
• Key Performance Parameters
• Attenuation-to-Crosstalk Ratio (ACR): measure of how much larger the
received signal strength is compared to the crosstalk on the same pair
• A positive value is required for successful operation

𝑨𝑪𝑹𝒅𝑩 = 𝑵𝑬𝑿𝑻𝒅𝑩 − 𝑨𝒅𝑩

Guided Media
Example 1: Determine the ACR in dB of a twisted pair wires if it has a
transmitter power of 100mW, received signal power of 10mW, and
crosstalk power level of 2mW.
Guided Media
Example 1: Determine the ACR in dB of a twisted pair wires if it has a
transmitter power of 100mW, received signal power of 10mW, and
crosstalk power level of 2mW.
• Solution:
• Given:
• 𝑃𝑡 = 100𝑚𝑊
• 𝑃𝑟 = 10𝑚𝑊
• 𝑃𝑐 = 2𝑚𝑊
Guided Media
Example 1: Determine the ACR in dB of a twisted pair wires if it has a
transmitter power of 100mW, received signal power of 10mW, and
crosstalk power level of 2mW.
• Solution:
• 𝐴𝐶𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 𝑁𝐸𝑋𝑇𝑑𝐵 − 𝐴𝑑𝐵
𝑃𝑡 𝑃𝑡
• 𝐴𝐶𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 10 log − 10 log
𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑟
100𝑚𝑊 100𝑚𝑊
• 𝐴𝐶𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 10 log − 10 log
2𝑚𝑊 10𝑚𝑊
Guided Media
Example 1: Determine the ACR in dB of a twisted pair wires if it has a
transmitter power of 100mW, received signal power of 10mW, and
crosstalk power level of 2mW.
• Solution:
100𝑚𝑊 100𝑚𝑊
• 𝐴𝐶𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 10 log − 10 log
2𝑚𝑊 10𝑚𝑊
• 𝐴𝐶𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 16.9897 − 10
• 𝑨𝑪𝑹𝒅𝑩 = 𝟔. 𝟗𝟗
Guided Media
Coaxial Cable (Coax)
• Consists of two conductors, but is constructed differently to permit it to
operate over a wider range of frequencies
• Consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single
inner wire conductor
• The inner conductor is held in place by either regularly spaced insulating
rings or a solid dielectric material
• The outer conductor is covered with a jacket or shield
• Single coaxial cable has a diameter of from 1 to 2.5 cm
• Can be used over longer distances and support more stations on a shared
line than twisted pair
Guided Media
Coaxial Cable (Coax)
Guided Media
Coaxial Cable (Coax)
• Applications:
• Television distribution: Community Area TV or CATV (thus “cable”)
• Long-distance telephone transmission
• Short-run computer system links
• Local area networks
Guided Media
Coaxial Cable (Coax)
• Transmission Characteristics
• Both analog and digital transmissions
• Shielded, concentric construction: less susceptible to interference and
crosstalk than twisted pair
• Analog spectrum: 500MHz
• Analog transmission distance: every few kilometers, but higher data
rates
• Digital transmission distance: every one kilometer, but higher data
rates
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• An optical fiber is a thin, flexible medium capable of guiding an
optical ray
• Glasses and plastics can be used to make optical fibers instead of
copper wires
• Hardest to manufacture (especially with ultrapure glass) and most
expensive among the guided media
• Offers the highest bandwidth and highest data rate possible
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Components:
• Core: innermost section and consists of thin strands made of glass or
plastic; diameter in the range of 8 to 62.5 µm; this is where the optical
ray travels
• Cladding: a glass or plastic coating that has optical properties different
from those of the core and a diameter of 125 µm; interface between
the core and cladding acts as a reflector to confine light that would
otherwise escape the core
• Buffer coating: hard plastic coating that protects the glass from
moisture and physical damage
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Components:
• Jacket: composed of plastic and other materials, layered to protect
against moisture, abrasion, crushing, and other environmental dangers
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Applications:
• Long-distance telecommunications
• Long-haul trunks
• Metropolitan trunks
• Rural exchange trunks
• Subscriber loops
• Local area networks
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Characteristics unique to fiber optics:
• Greater capacity: hundreds of Gbps to Tbps
• Smaller size and lighter weight: in micrometers scale, can be bundled
to several hundred fibers to accommodate large communication lines
• Lower attenuation: uses optical waves rather than electrical that
prevents other forms of interferences and noises
• Greater repeater spacing: better performance require less repeaters,
thus lowering maintenance costs
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Transmission Characteristics
• A digital signal is fed into the light source through an electronic
interface
• A light source produces series of lightwave pulses that encode the
digital data from the electrical input
• Optical fiber transmits a signal-encoded beam of light by means of
total internal reflection
• Total internal reflection can occur in any transparent medium that has
a higher index of refraction than the surrounding medium; in effect, it
acts as a waveguide for frequencies in the range of about 1014 to 1015 Hz
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Transmission Characteristics
• The receiver includes a light sensor that detects the incoming light
signal and converts it back to a digital electrical signal
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Fiber Optic Modes
Step-Index Multimode
• Rays at shallow angles are reflected and propagated along the fiber
• Other rays are absorbed by the surrounding material
• Multiple propagation paths exist, each with a different path length and
hence time to traverse the fiber
• This causes signal elements (light pulses) to spread out in time, which
limits the rate at which data can be accurately received
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Fiber Optic Modes
Step-Index Multimode
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Fiber Optic Modes
Single-mode propagation
• Best performing fiber optic
• Only a single angle or mode can pass: the axial ray
• The distortion found in multimode cannot occur
• Typically for long-distance applications only due to the difficulty of
producing extremely narrow core
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Fiber Optic Modes
Single-mode propagation
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Fiber Optic Modes
Graded-index multimode
• Similar to step-index multimode but its cladding has varying index of
refractions
• Intermediate between the other two in characteristics
• The higher refractive index at the center makes the light rays moving
down the axis advance more slowly than those near the cladding
• Rather than zig-zagging off the cladding, light in the core curves
helically because of the graded index, reducing its travel distance
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Fiber Optic Modes
Graded-index multimode
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Light Sources
• Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
• Solid Lasers
• Liquid Lasers
• Gas Lasers
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Light Sources
• Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
• Solid Lasers
• Liquid Lasers
• Gas Lasers
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Light Sources
• Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
• Solid Lasers
• Liquid Lasers
• Gas Lasers
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Light Sources
• Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
• Solid Lasers
• Liquid Lasers
• Gas Lasers
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Light Sources
• Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
• Solid Lasers
• Liquid Lasers
• Gas Lasers
Guided Media
Optical Fiber
• Important Wavelengths
• Infrared range just below the visible light: 400 – 700nm
• Local applications: 850nm LED
• High data rates: 1300nm LED or Laser sources
• Highest data rates and longest distance: 1500nm Laser sources
Unguided/Wireless Media
• Microwave: range of 1GHz to 40GHz, directional, suitable to point-
to-point communications like satellite
• Radio: range of 30MHz to 1GHz, suitable for omnidirectional
applications
• Infrared: range of 3 X 1011 to 2 X 1014 Hz, only for local point-to-point
or multipoint that has short distances, like a single room
• All are achieved by using Antennas
Unguided/Wireless Media
Antenna
• Electrical conductor or system of conductors used either for
radiating electromagnetic energy or for collecting electromagnetic
energy
• Electrical energy from the transmitter is converted into
electromagnetic energy by the antenna and radiated into the
surrounding environment (atmosphere, space, water)
• Reception occurs when the electromagnetic signal intersects the
antenna, where the electromagnetic energy is converted into
electrical energy and fed into the receiver
Unguided/Wireless Media
Antenna
Types:
• Isotropic antenna/omnidirectional antenna: Radiates power equally
in all directions
Unguided/Wireless Media
Antenna
Types:
• Half-wave dipole antenna: Length is exactly one half of the
wavelength of the modulated signal
Unguided/Wireless Media
Antenna
Types:
• Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi antenna): Length is
exactly one fourth of the wavelength of the modulated signal
Unguided/Wireless Media
Antenna
Types:
• Parabolic Reflective Antenna: uses a parabolic dish to focus all
energy into the focus of an antenna
• Transmission: able to direct the signals to a single direction using
reflections to the dish
• Reception: able to absorb all signals in a single direction through its
focus
Unguided/Wireless Media
Antenna
Types:
• Parabolic Reflective Antenna
Unguided/Wireless Media
Terrestrial Microwave
• Uses Parabolic Reflective Dish by about 3m in diameter
• The antenna is fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam to achieve
line-of-sight transmission to the receiving antenna
• Microwave antennas are usually located at substantial heights
above ground level to extend the range between antennas and to
be able to transmit over intervening obstacles
• To achieve long-distance transmission, a series of microwave relay
towers is used, with point-to-point microwave links strung together
over the desired distance
Unguided/Wireless Media
Terrestrial Microwave
• Applications:
• Long-haul telecommunications service, as an alternative to coaxial
cable or optical fiber
• Short point-to-point links between buildings
• Cellular Systems
Unguided/Wireless Media
Satellite Microwave
Have the following components:
• Ground-based microwave transmitters/receivers  earth stations or
ground stations
• Satellite receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink),
amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on another
frequency (downlink)
• A single orbiting satellite will operate on a number of frequency
bands, called transponder channels, or simply transponders
Unguided/Wireless Media
Satellite Microwave
Unguided/Wireless Media
Satellite Microwave
Applications:
• Television distribution
• Long-distance telephone transmission
• Private business networks
• Global positioning
Unguided/Wireless Media
Broadcast Radio
• Omnidirectional in nature
• AM/FM Radios
• TV applications (VHF/UHF)
• Uses atmosphere (ionosphere) to reflect signals to reach long
distances
Unguided/Wireless Media
Infrared
• Modulate noncoherent infrared light
• Must be on line-of-sight or reflected using light-colored surfaces
• Only used for short distances (across a room)
• No licensing is required
Laboratory:
Construction of Twisted
Pair Wires
Laboratory
• Materials required to buy: RJ 45 Connectors, buy at least 6 each
• Materials that can be shared: cutter, wire stripper, crimper
• Since you need to buy, we’ll just do the lab next week (Mar. 18)
• Venue of lab: EB 408