THYRISTORS

What are…

THYRISTORS?
 Thyristor
- “Thyratron and
transistor”
- A four layer pnpn
device used as an
electronic switches
- Controls large amount
of power using a very
small input power
- Solid state device
THYRISTORS
 Thyristors

• Thyristor is a four-layer “pnpn” or “npnp”

semiconductor device with a control
mechanism.

• A thyristor is functionally different than a

diode in that even if the device is forward
biased, it will not conduct (turn-on) until the
gate is pulsed.
 Thyristor (Function)
• The operation of a thyristor can be
understood in terms of a pair of
tightly coupled transistor, arranged
to cause the self-latching action.
• They are also referred to as latching
devices. A latch is a kind of switch
which initially once closed, remains
closed until someone opens it.
 Construction of a Thyristor

!
Equivalent Circuit
Four Layer Devices

Acts as either open or closed

switches; for this reason, they
are most frequently used in
control applications
Classifications and
Functions of Thyristors
- Silicon Controlled Rectifier
- Silicon Controlled Switch
- Gate Turn-off Switch
- Light Activated SCR
- Diac
- Triac
- Shockley Diode
SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)
- Most commonly used thyristor
- Used in delay control
- Introduced in 1956 by Bell Telephone
laboratories
- Designed to control power as high as
10MW with individual ratings of 2000 A at
1800 V.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• It is one of the prominent members of the thyristor
family.
• It is a four-layer of PNPN device.
• Basically, it is a rectifier constructed of silicon material
with a third terminal for control purposes.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• Anode and Cathode
terminals as
conventional pn
junction diode ANODE

SCR
Gate terminal for a 2N3668
controlling input signal; GATE
determines when the
rectifier switches from
CATHODE
the open-circuit to
short-circuit state.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• The graphic symbol for the SCR is shown with
the corresponding connections to the four-
layer semiconductor structure.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• It is widely used as a switching device in power
control applications. It can control loads by
switching current OFF and ON up to many
thousand times a second.
• When the proper signal is applied to the gate
electrode, the device switches rapidly to a
conducting state and allows current flow in the
forward direction, just as in the conventional
rectifier.
• In the conduction region, the dynamic resistance
of the SCR is typically 0.01 to 0.1 Ohms.
• The reverse resistance is typically 100 kilo Ohms or
more.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
 SCR Operation
• In Fig. 64.11 (a), current flow is blocked due to reverse-biased junction 𝐽2 .
However, when anode voltage is increased, a certain critical value called forward
breakover voltage 𝑉𝐵𝑂 is reached when 𝐽2 breaks down and SCR switches
suddenly to a highly conducting state. Under this condition, SCR offers very little
forward resistance (0.01 Ω – 1.0 Ω) so that voltage across it drops to a low value
(about 1 V) as shown in Fig. 64.12 and current is limited only by the power supply
and the load resistance. Current keeps flowing indefinitely until the circuit is
opened briefly
 SCR Operation
• With supply connection as in Fig. 64.11 (b), the current through
the SCR is blocked by the two reverse biased junctions J1 and J3.
When V is increased, a stage comes when Zener breakdown
occurs which may destroy the SCR (Fig. 64.12). Hence, it is seen
that SCR is a unidirectional device unlike triac which is bi-
directional.
 SCR Two Transistor Analogy
• The basic operation of a SCR
can be described by using two
transistor analogy. For this
purpose, SCR is split into two
3-layer transistor structures as
shown .
• When two transistors are fully
turned ON, voltage across the
two transistors falls to a very
low value. Typical turn-ON
times for an SCR are 0.1 to 1.0  2 IG
IA 
µs. 1  (1   2 )
 SCR Firing and Triggering
• We have discussed above the most common method of SCR
triggering i.e. gate triggering. However, other available
triggering methods are as under :
– 1. Thermal Triggering - In this case, the temperature of the
forward-biased junction is increased till the reverse-biased
junction breaks down.
– 2. Radiation Triggering - Here, triggering is achieved with the help
of charge carriers which are produced by the bombardment of the
SCR with external high-energy particles like neutrons or protons.
– 3. Voltage Triggering - In this case, the voltage applied across the
anode and cathode of the SCR is increased which decreases the
width of the depletion layer at the reverse-biased junction leading
to its collapse.
– 4. dv/dt Triggering - In this case, dv / dt is made more than the
value of the critical rate of rise of the voltage
 SCR Firing and Triggering
• SCR Firing
 The application of GATE voltage is known as firing.
• Generally there are two types of firing:
1. Zero Voltage Cross Over firing - operates by turning the SCR’s on
or sending gate signal only when the instantaneous value of the
sinusoidal voltage through it is zero.
 For example if the total cycle time is set to 2 seconds and a 50%
power output from the thyristor controller is required then the
output will be fully on for 1 second and fully off for 1 second, this
is shown in the diagram below:
 SCR Firing and Triggering
2. Phase angle control method - the phase angle is varied, i.e. the
application of gate pulses is delayed by certain time and the
conduction is controlled.
 Varying this switch-on point between the initial and final zero
voltage points of the sine wave provides a variation from
100% down to 0% of the load voltage (and hence the output
power). For example if a 50% power output from the
thyristor controller is required then the waveform would be:
 SCR Firing and Triggering
• Conduction angle – is the number of degrees of an ac
cycle during which the SCR is turned ON.
• Firing delay angle – is the number of degrees of an ac
cycle that elapses before the SCR is turned on.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

• Example:
Which condition would cause the larger load
current, a firing delay angle of 30 degrees or a
firing delay angle of 45 degrees.

Solution:
The firing delay angle of 30 degrees, because the
SCR would then spend a greater portion of the
cycle time in the ON state. The more time spent in
the ON state, the greater the average load current.
 SCR Firing and Triggering

• SCR Gate Characteristics:

Most SCRs require a gate current of
between 0.1 and 50 mA to fire.
The voltage between the gate and cathode
must be slightly greater than 0.6 V.
Holding current is around 10mA
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

• It remains turned on when the gate voltage is

removed.

• Two general methods for turning off an SCR:

– Anode current interruption
– Forced – commutation technique
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

• Anode current interruption

Series Interruption Shunt Interruption

 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• Forced Commutation
Is the forcing of current through the SCR in the
direction opposite to forward conduction.
Turn-off times of SCRs are typically 5 to 30
microseconds.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

• For turn-off conditions, a positive pulse is

applied to the base of the transistor, turning it
heavily on, resulting in a very low impedance
from collector to emitter (short-circuit
representation).
• The battery potential will then appear directly
across the SCR forcing current through it in the
reverse direction for turn-off.
SCR Characteristics and Ratings
 SCR Characteristics and Ratings
1. Forward breakover voltage V(BR)F* is that voltage
above which the SCR enters the conduction region.
2. Holding current (IH) is that value of current below
which the SCR switches from the conduction state to the
forward blocking region under stated conditions.
3. Forward and reverse blocking regions are the regions
corresponding to the open circuit condition for the
controlled rectifier which block the flow of charge
(current)from anode to cathode.
4. Reverse breakdown voltage is equivalent to the Zener
or avalanche region of the fundamental two-layer
semiconductor diode.
 SCR APPLICATION
• In recent years, SCRs have been designed to
control powers as high as 10 MW with
individual ratings as high as 2000 A at 1800 V.
• Its frequency range of application has also
been extended to about 50 kHz, permitting
some high-frequency applications such as
induction heating and ultrasonic cleaning.
 SCR APPLICATION

• A few of the more common areas of

application for SCRs include relay controls,
time-delay circuits, regulated power
suppliers, static switches, motor controls,
choppers, inverters, cycloconverters, battery
chargers, protective circuits, heater controls,
and phase controls.
 SCR APPLICATION
• One popular application of the SCR is in a battery-charging
regulator

• the regulator recharges the battery whenever the voltage drops

and prevents overcharging when fully charged.
 Problem
• Describe and explain the schematic diagram
showing an application of SCR in a Single-
source emergency-lighting system.
SILICON-CONTROLLED SWITCH (SCS)
- A thyristor with four external terminals
- Used in wide variety of computer circuits
(counters, registers, and timing circuits),
pulse generators, voltage sensors, and
oscillator
- Reduced turn-off time compared to SCR
 Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)
• A four-terminal switching device that has four
semiconductor layers, all of which are accessible due
to the addition of an anode gate.
 Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)

• The characteristics of the device are essentially the

same as those for the SCR.
• Either gate can fire the SCS:
a. A positive pulse or voltage on the cathode gate, or
b. A negative pulse or voltage on the anode gate.

• In general, the triggering (turn-on) anode gate current

is larger in magnitude (1.5mA) than the required
cathode gate current (1microAmp.).
 Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)
• The required turn-on gate current at either
terminal is affected by many factors:
the operating temperature,
anode-to-cathode voltage,
load placement,
and type of cathode, gate-to-cathode or
anode gate-to-anode connection (short-
circuit, open-circuit, bias, load, etc.).
 Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)

• SCS Turn-off Techniques:

• Either gate can switch OFF the SCS:

a. A negative pulse or voltage on the cathode
gate, or
b. A positive pulse or voltage on the anode
gate.
 Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)

• SCS Turn-off Techniques

 Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)
• Its advantages over the SCR are reduced turn-
off time, typically within 1 to 10µs.
• Increased control and triggering sensitivity
and a more predictable firing situation.
• Some limitations include low power, current
and voltage ratings.
• The typical maximum anode current range
from 100 to 300 mA with dissipation (power)
ratings of 100 to 500mW.
 SCS Application

• A few of the more common areas of

application include:
 a wide variety of computer circuits
(counters, registers, and timing circuits),
pulse generators,
voltage sensors, and
oscillators.
 Physical Symbol Equivalent Schematic

GATE TURN-OFF SWITCH (GTO)

- A thyristor with three external terminals
- Can be turned on or off by applying the Schematic Symbol
proper pulse to the cathode gate
- Maximum rms current and dissipation
ratings are limited to about 3 A and 20 W,
respectively.
 Gate Turn-off (GTO) Switch

• The gate turn-off switch (GTO) is a pnpn

device like the SCR.
• It has only three external terminals.
 Gate Turn-off (GTO) Switch
• The most obvious advantage of the GTO over the
SCR or SCS is the fact that it can be turned on or off
by applying the proper pulse to the cathode gate
(without the anode gate and associated circuitry
required for the SCS).
• The gate-triggering current of a particular SCR is 30
mA while the triggering current of the GTO is 20
mA.
• The maximum rms current and dissipation ratings
of GTOs manufactured today are limited to about 3
A and 20 W, respectively
 Gate Turn-off (GTO) Switch
• Improved switching characteristics.
• The turn-on time is similar to the SCR (typically
1 microseconds), but the turn-off time of
about the same duration (1microseconds)
• Used in high-speed applications.
• Some of the areas of application for the GTO
include counters, pulse generators,
multivibrators, and voltage regulators.
 Physical Symbol Equivalent Schematic

LIGHT-ACTIVATED SCR (LASCR)

- An SCR whose state is controlled by the
light falling upon a silicon semiconductor Schematic Symbol
layer of the device
- Maximum current (rms) and power ratings
are about 3 A and 0.1 W, respectively
 Light Activated SCR (LASCR)
• It is an SCR whose state is controlled by the
light falling upon a silicon semiconductor layer
of the device.
 Light Activated SCR (LASCR)
• It is an SCR whose state is controlled by the light
falling upon a silicon semiconductor layer of the
device.
• It has a glass window for incident light that takes
the place of, or adds to the action of an electric
gate current in providing switching action.
 Light Activated SCR (LASCR)
• The maximum current (rms) and power (gate)
ratings for LASCRs commercially available today
are about 3 A and 0.1 W.
• Some of the areas of application for the LASCR
include:
 optical light controls,
relays,
phase control,
motor control,
and a variety of computer applications.
 Light Activated SCS (LASCS)
• A semiconductor device that has four layers of silicon
alternately doped with acceptor and donor impurities
similar to in LASCR but with all P and N layers made
accessible by terminals .
• When the light beam hits the active light sensitive
surface, the photons generate electron-hole pairs that
make the device turn on.
• Removal of light does not reverse the phenomenon.
The switch can be turned off only by removing or the
reversing its positive bias.
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
• Basically, it is a three-terminal silicon diode. As
its name indicates, it has only one P-N junction.
• It differs from an ordinary diode in that it has
three leads and it differs from a FET in that it
has no ability to amplify. However, it has the
ability to control a large ac power with a small
signal.
• It also exhibits a negative resistance
characteristic which makes it useful as an
oscillator.
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
• The UJT is a three-terminal device having the basic
construction shown in the figure below.

• A slab of lightly doped (increased resistance characteristic) n-

type silicon material has two base contacts attached to both
ends of one surface and an aluminum rod alloyed to the
opposite surface.
 UJT Construction
• It consists of a lightly-doped silicon Bar with a heavily-doped P-type
material alloyed to its one side (closer to B2) for producing single P-N
junction.
• It has three terminals : one emitter, E and two bases B2 and B1 at the
top and bottom of the silicon bar.
• The emitter leg is drawn at an angle to the vertical and arrow points in
the direction of conventional current when UJT is in the conducting
state.
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
• Circuit equivalent of UJT

• RB1 may vary from 5 kiloohms down to 50 Ohms

for a corresponding change of IE from 0 to 50
microampere.
 UJT Interbase Resistance (𝑅𝐵𝐵 )
• It is the resistance between B2 and B1 i.e. it is
the total resistance of the silicon bar from one
end to the other with emitter terminal open.

 RBB is typically within the range of 4 to 10 kiloohms

 It should also be noted that point A is such that

RB1 > RB2.

 Usually, RB2= 60% of RB1.
 UJT Intrinsic Stand-off Ratio
• It may be noted that part of VBB is dropped over RB2 and part
on RB1. The magnitude of VRB1 (with IE=0).

 Where η = ‘intrinsic standoff ratio’

RB1
 
RB1  RB 2
 The intrinsic stand-off ratio is the property of the
UJT and is always less than unity (0.5 to 0.85).
 UJT Operation

• In simplest terms, the UJT operates as follows:

1. When the voltage between the emitter and base 1
is less than a certain value called the peak voltage,
the UJT is turned OFF, and no current flow from E
to B1.
2. When the voltage between the emitter and base 1
exceeds the peak voltage by a small amount, the
UJT fires or turns ON.
 UJT Operation

• The emitter firing potential is given by:

• Where the forward voltage drop of the diode:

VD = (0.35 → 0.70 V)
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

• Example:
1. If the UJT has a standoff ratio = 0.55 and an
externally applied VBB=20V, what is the peak
voltage?
2. If the UJT has an RB1=6.2 kOhms and an
RB2=2.2 Kohms,
(a)What is the standoff ratio?
(b) How large is the peak voltage?
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
• As seen from Fig. below, when a battery of 30 V is applied
across B2 & B1, there is a progressive fall of voltage over
RBB provided E is open.

 With emitter open, 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 , the VBB

interbase current is given by Ohm’s I1  I 2 
RBB
Law.
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

Example:
Given the figure below, (a) determine RB1 and RB2 at IE=0 A.
(b) Calculate VP, the voltage necessary to turn on the UJT.
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
• Seatwork
1. For a unijunction transistor with VBB = 20 V,
standoff ratio = 0.65, RB1=2 k (IE=0), and
VD=0.7 V, determine:
(a) RB2.
(b) RBB.
(c) VRB1
(d) VP.
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
Seatwork
2. Given the relaxation oscillator below, (a)
determine RB1 and RB2 at IE=0 A. (b) Calculate
VP, the voltage necessary to turn on the UJT.
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
 Once conduction is established
at VE=VP, the emitter potential
VE will drop with increase in IE.
• This corresponds exactly with
the decreasing resistance RB1
for increasing current
IE(negative resistance region).
• The decrease in resistance in the
active region is due to the holes
injected into the n-type slab
from the aluminum p-type rod
when conduction is established.
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
• Typical static emitter-characteristic curves for
a UJT
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
• Three other important parameters for the
unijunction transistor are IP, VV, and IV.

• Peak-Point Emitter Current. Ip

 is the emitter current at the peak point.
It represents the minimum current that is
required to trigger the device (UJT).
 It is inversely proportional to the interbase
voltage VBB.
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
• Valley Point Voltage VV
The valley point voltage is the emitter
voltage at the valley point. The valley voltage
increases with the increase in interbase
voltage VBB.
• Valley Point Current IV
The valley point current is the emitter
current at the valley point. It increases with
the increase in inter-base voltage VBB.
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
• One common application of the UJT is in the
triggering of other devices such as the SCR.
• The basic elements of such a triggering circuit
are shown in Figure below: