Agustin
MODULATION
process by which some
mixing of low frequency characteristic of a high
signals modulating signal) frequency sine wave is
with high frequency varied in accordance with
signals (carrier signal) the instantaneous value of
the signal
1. Pulse
1. Continuous Wave
carrier is a train of
carrier is a sinusoid
pulses (discrete)
Types of Modulation
a. According to the method used
1. Analog
modulated parameter 2. Digital
is made proportional to change the form of a
the modulating signal given signal
Reasons for Modulation
4. For multiplexing
1. Amplitude Modulation
2. Angle Modulation
ѵ = instantaneous amplitude
V = peak amplitude
ω = 2Πf; angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
ѳ = phase angle in radians
amplitude
phase
t = 1/f
NOTE
Any type of modulation should be reversible
(get back to the original signal) by process of
demodulation.
Basic Emission Classification
First Symbol – Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier
Emission of unmodulated carrier N
Analog 3
Multichannel digital 7
Multichannel analog 8
Combination 9
Facsimile C
Television (video ) F
Monochrome M
Color N
Carrier
Carrier voltage is (νc )
made proportional
to the instantaneous
modulating signal
General Equation of the AM wave
Therefore A = Vc + Vc ma sin ωm t
A = Vc (1 + ma sin ωm t )
νAM(t) carrier
LSB USB
fc - fm fc fc + fm
Envelope
envelope
AM Modulation Index (ma)
where
; 0 < ma < 1
Percent Modulation (Ma)
Ma = ma x 100%
Degrees of Modulation
1. Ma < 100%
undermodulation
2. Ma = 100%
modulation
3. Ma > 100%
overmodulation
Example
A modulated wave has a peak value of 2 volts. The carrier wave
equation for the voltage is 1.2 sin(20t + 15). Determine
whether the signal is overmodulated or not.
Given
Vm = 2 V
Vc = 1.2 V
Solution
ma = 1.67 (overmodulated)
Power Content of an AM Signal
PT = PC + PUSB + PLSB
PT = PC
NOTE
PUSB = PLSB
where PUSB = PLSB =
PSBT =
NOTE
PC is constant value before and after modulation. PT is
the total power after modulation and is dependent on
the modulation index. The higher the modulation
index, the higher the output power.
Example
A transmitter supplies 8 kW to the antenna when
unmodulated. Determine the total power radiated when
modulated to 30%.
Given
Pc = 8 kW
ma = 0.3
Solution
PT = 8.36 kW
Current and Voltage Relationships
where
IC = unmodulated carrier
IT = total or modulated current
VC = unmodulated carrier voltage
V T = total or modulated voltage
ma = modulation index
Example
The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 A when only
the carrier is sent, but it increases to 8.93 A when the carrier
is sinusoidally modulated. Find the percentage
modulation.
Given
IC = 8 A
IT = 8.93 A
Solution
ma = 0.701
Ma = 70.1%
Simultaneous Modulation
where
V T = total modulated voltage
IT = total modulated current
maT = effective total modulation index
Example
A 360 W carrier is simultaneously modulated by 2 audio
waves with modulation percentage of 55 and 65,
respectively. What is the total sideband power radiated?
Given
PC = 360 W
Ma1 = 55%
Ma2 = 65%
Solution
PSBT = 130.5 W
Bandwidth Formula for AM
BW = 2 x fm (single carrier modulation)
Effiency
NOTE
Efficiency and power saving depends on the type of
transmission but the total transmitted power is
computed on the basis of double sideband full carrier.
Example
How many AM broadcast stations can be accommodated in a
100 kHz bandwidth if the highest modulating frequency is
5 kHz?
Given
BW = 100 kHz
fmhighest = 5 kHz
Solution
BW = 2 x fmhighest
BW = 2 x 5 kHz
BW = 10 kHz
10 stations
Types of AM Transmission Frequency Domain
1. A3E – Standard AM (DSBFC)
- Double Sideband Full Carrier
- used for broadcasting
2. A3J – DSBSC
- Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier
3. H3E – SSBFC
- Single Sideband Full Carrier
- could be used as a compatible AM
broadcasting system with A3E receivers
4. J3E – SSBSC
- Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier
- The carrier is suppressed by at least 45 dB
in the transmitter
Types of AM Transmission Frequency Domain
5. R3E – SSBRC
- Single Sideband Reduced Carrier
- An attenuated carrier is reinserted into the
SSB signal to facilitate receiving tuning and
demodulation.
6. B8E – Independent Sideband Emission
- Two independent sidebands, with a carrier
that is most commonly attenuated or suppressed.
- Used for HF point – to – point radiotelephony
in which more than one channel is required.
7. C3F – Vestigial Sideband
- A system in which a vestige, i.e., a trace, of the
unwanted sideband is transmitted usually with
a full carrier.
- Used for video transmissions in all the world’s
various TV systems to conserve bandwidth.
8. Lincompex (for PCM)
- “Linked Compressor and Expander”
- Basically a system in which all audio
frequencies above 2.7 kHz are filtered out to
allow the presence of a control tone of 2.9 kHz
of 120 Hz.
NOTE
a) Information is present only in the sidebands.
b) During 100% modulation, 2/3 of the total power is
wasted in the carrier. The carrier power
percentage is 33.33% of the transmitted AM.
c) Information on the LSB is the same as the
information on the USB.
Given
PT = 100 W
Ma = 100%
Solution
PSBT = PT – PC
PSBT = 33.33 W
PC = 66.67 W
1. Filter Method
the simplest system
the unwanted sideband is removed, actually heavily
attenuated by a filter
the filter maybe LC, crystal, ceramic or mechanical,
depending on the carrier frequency and other
requirements
Crystal
oscillator
SSB out to
linear
Sideband amplifier
Buffer Balanced Balanced
suppression
modulator mixer
filter
Filter Crystal
Audio
AF in for other oscillator or
amplifier
sideband synthesizer
2. Phase – Shift Method
avoids filters and some of their inherent disadvantages
makes use of two balanced modulators and two – phase
shifting networks
Balanced
modulator
M1
Carrier
source
AF Balanced
90° phase modulator
shifter M2
3. “Third” or Weaver Method
developed by Weaver
has the advantages of the phase- shift method, such as its
ability to generate SSB at any frequency and use low
audio frequencies, without the associated
disadvantage of an AF phase shift network required
to operate over a large range of audio frequencies.
2cos ωc t 2cos ωc t
90° phase 90° phase
shifter shifter
Advantages of SSB
1. power saving
2. less bandwidth
3. less noise
4. less fading
Independent Sideband (ISB) Systems
Transmitter Requirements
AF AF AF Modulator
AF in processing pre – Class B (AF Class
and amplifier power B output
filtering amplifier amplier)
Crystal Oscillator
It provides a stable carrier frequency
at low power.
Buffer Amplifier
AF Preamplifier
Modulator
where
Vc = carrier signal peak voltage
ωc = 2Πfc = carrier signal angular frequency
ωm = 2Πfm = modulating signal angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
mf = modulation index
Frequency Domain of Standard FM
νFM(t)
fc
fc + nfm
fc - nfm
Time Domain of Standard FM
Frequency Deviation (δ)
δ = fmax - fc
δ = fc - fmin
where δ = fmax + fc
δ
fc = carrier frequency CS
fmax = maximum frequency δ δ = fc - fmin
change of the carrier
fmin = minimum frequency
change of the carrier CS (Carrier Swing)
NOTE
The intelligence amplitude determines the a mount of
carrier frequency deviation. The intelligence frequency
determines the rate of carrier frequency deviation.
δ α Em
δ = k Em
k=
Example
Find the carrier and modulating frequencies , the modulation
index and the maximum deviation of the FM wave represented
by the voltage equation νFM(t) = 12 sin (6 x 108 + 5 sin 1250t).
What power will this FM wave dissipate in a 10Ω resistor?
Given
νFM(t) = 12 sin (6 x 108 + 5 sin 1250t)
Solution
ωc = 6 x 108 ωm = 1250
mf = 5
Solution
δ = mf fm
= (5 x 198.94)
δ = 994.72 Hz
P = 7.2 W
Carrier Swing
Modulation Index
NOTE
The modulation index determines the number of
significant sidebands in an FM signal. The
modulation index for FM is directly proportional to
the modulating voltage and at the same time inversely
proportional to the modulating signal frequency.
Example
A modulation frequency range from 30 to 15000 Hz is permitted
in an FM system, together with a maximum deviation of 50
kHz. What will be the minimum and maximum possible values
of modulation index in the system.
Given
fm = 30 – 15000 Hz
δmax = 50 kHz
Solution
Percentage of Modulation
Wideband FM vs. Narrowband FM
Given
fm = 88 – 108 Mhz
δmax = 15 kHz
Solution
mf = 20%
Frequency Spectrum of the FM Wave
νFM = J0 (mf ) sin ωc t + J1 (mf ) [ sin (ωc + ωm)t – sin (ωc - ωm)t ]
amplitude of sidebands
the carrier with
signal frequencies
NOTE
For a single fm , you can produce an infinite number
of sidebands, in pairs, but most of them would be of
negligible amounts.
Transmitted Power
In FM, PT is constant.
NOTE
In FM, the total transmitted power always
remains constant, but with increased depth
of modulation the required bandwidth is
increased.
Bandwidth Formulas for FM
a. Theoretical BW for FM
b. Approximate BW
c. NBFM
BW ≈ 2fm
d. WBFM
BW ≈ 2δ
Advantages of FM over AM
Exciter
RF (the means of Power
oscillator providing an amplifier
FM RF signal )
Audio Pre-emphasis
amplifier network
Pre -emphasis
Reducing the
amplitude of the
higher modulating
frequencies at the
receiver to the same
amount as it was
before the
pre – emphasis
circuit.
NOTE
The pre –emphasis and de – emphasis networks have a time
constant of 75 μs (150 μs for Europe , 25 μs for Dolby) and a
cut – off frequency of 2122 Hz.
NOTE
If two modulating signals have the same initial amplitude
and one of them is pre – emphasized to twice this
amplitude, whereas the other is unaffected, being at a
much lower frequency , then the receiver will naturally
have to de –emphasize the first signal by a factor of 2 to
ensure that both signals have the same amplitude in the
output of the receiver.
Forms of Interference in FM
1. Image Frequency
effect of two stations being received
simultaneously
2. Co – channel Interference
NOTE
Stereophonic uses 38 kHz subcarrier from a pilot carrier of
19 kHz to produce sum and difference of the two channels.
Also, a 67 kHz subsidiary communications authorization
(SCA) is added for optional transmission in FM
broadcasting. Optional SCA
transmission
sum channel sub – difference channel
(L + R) carrier (L - R)
0 15 19 23 38 53 59.5 67 74.5
audio DSBSC AM FM
Generation of FM Signals
A. Direct Method
1. Reactance Modulator
Reactance of the capacitive or
inductive components of the
tank circuit vary in direct
relationship to the audio
signal which causes the
oscillator frequency to vary
thereby directly producing
AM.
2. Varactor Diode
Modulator
Armstrong Method
The modulating signal is modulated using
balanced modulator then fed to a summing
device together with a crystal that is shifted
90°. Wideband FM then obtain by
successive frequency multiplication of the
output.
high fc
and mf
Crystal carrier only
oscillator medium fc low fc high fc
and low mf and mf and mf
FM wave(very low
fc and mf )
Combining 1st group of Mixer 2nd group of Class C
Buffer
network multipliers multipliers power
amplifiers
sidebands only
equalized audio
Audio
carrier at equalizer
90°
Phase Modulation
where
mp = kpVm
mp = modulation index
kp = proportionality constant
Given
νPM (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 2000t)
Solution
b. phase modulated
Functions of a Receiver
1. selects the desired signal
2. amplifies
3. demodulates / detects
4. displays
Standard AM Receivers
1. Tuned Radio Frequency
2. Superheterodyne Receiver
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
Power
amplifier
1st RF 2nd RF AM AF
amplifier amplifier detector amplifier
ganged
RF Amplifier
It amplifies weak signal from the antenna. It has
a variable resistor that controls the RF gain and
sensitivity.
Detector
It provides rectification and detection for
modulated signals.
AF Amplifier
Volume – controlled amplifier that raises the
power level of the audio (AF) signal to a value
sufficient to drive the loudspeaker of the
receiver.
NOTE
RF stage provides greater gain, prevention of re –radiation
of the local oscillator, improved rejection of adjacent
unwanted signals and better coupling of antenna with the
receiver.
RF
fo fIF 1st IF 2nd IF AM AF
Mixer
amplifier amplifier amplifier detector amplifier
fsi
fs
Crystal
oscillator
ganged
RF Amplifier
Amplifies the weak NOTE
The RF section provides
RF signal received discrimination or selectivity against
from the antenna. image and intermediate frequency
Selectivity of the signals, provide an efficient coupling
receiver depends on between the antenna and the first
stage of the RF amplifier.
this section.
Local Oscillator
A crystal oscillator whose frequency “beats” with
the incoming signal to produce the correct
intermediate frequency.
1st IF Amplifier
Tuned to 455 kHz (IF of AM), amplifies it and
rejects the remaining output frequencies
2nd IF Amplifier
Further amplification and selectivity of the IF
signal. Most of the gain (sensitivity) of the receiver
are achieved on the IF amplifiers.
AF Amplifier
It raises the power level of the audio signal; to a
value sufficient to drive the loudspeaker of the
receiver.
FM Superheterodyne Receiver
RF amplifier
and
preselector
Local
oscillator
Demodulation
Sensitivity
Ability to amplify weak signals
Selectivity
Ability to reject unwanted signals(adjacent)
Image Rejection Ratio (α)
Provided by tuned circuits to block fsi
The ratio of the gain at desired frequency (fs)
to the gain of image frequency signal (fsi)
where
Q = quality factor provided by
tuned circuits to block fsi
fs = signal frequency
fo = oscillator frequency
fIF = intermediate frequency
fsi = image frequency signal
NOTE
fsi = fs + 2fIF ; the higher the fIF, the better
fsi = fo + fIF the image rejection
Example
In a broadcast superheterodyne receiver having loaded Q of 100
in the antenna coupling circuit. If fIF is 455 kHz. Calculate the
image frequency and its rejection ratio of 1000 kHz.
Given
Q = 100
fIF = 455 kHz
fs = 1000 kHz
Solution
fs = fs + 2fIF
= 1000 kHz + 2(455 kHz)
fsi = 1910 kHz
α = 138.65