Automobile Basics

What is an
automobile?

A vehicle is a thing used for transporting

people or goods, especially on land, such as a car,
lorry, or cart.

• An “Automobile” is a self propelling

vehicle.
 Automotive Systems

Body & Chassis

Engine and related Systems
Transmission
Braking System
Steering System
Suspension System
Safety Systems
 Body Construction

There exists two main ways of automobile body

construction

The Chassis and Body method &

The Mono-coque method.
 Chassis & Body

The Chassis and Body method

Body is separate unit joined with ladder type chassis.
All other parts like steering, suspension etc. are
attached to the chassis.
The benefits are higher load capacity and strength.
Disadvantages are vibrations less refined handling Used
mostly for MUVs, SUVs and bigger vehicles.
 The Mono-coque method.

No ladder frame
Suspension, steering etc. are all
bolted directly to the body, the body is
thus made sturdier.
Makes vehicle solid
Less rattles and squeaks
Handling is better
lesser load carrying capacity
Highly suitable for passenger cars
 Body Shapes
No hard & fast rules for classification as new segments and sub segments keep emerging
according to manufactures intentions or market demands

Broad classifications of the vehicles.

Hatchback
Sedan/Notchback
SUV
MUV/MPV
Pick-Up
Station Wagon/Estate
 Hatchback‘s

Separate engine area, and passenger area

Luggage area merged the passenger area behind the rear seats.
The luggage area is generally smaller than notchback/sedan
5 doors (4 passenger doors + hatchback) or 3 doors (2 passenger doors +
hatchback)
 Sedan’s / Notchback

Separate engine area, passenger area, and boot area,

4 + 1 doors.
The range starts from Compact Sedans to Premium Sedans
 Sports Utility Vehicles (SUV)

The engine area is separate and the passenger and boot

area are enclosed together.
Equipped with 4 wheel drive or has as an option
of 4 wheel drive.
Highly performance oriented. (Powerful
Engine)
Designed for off road usage.
Are generally equipped with technologically advanced &
luxury features.
MPV / MUV

Two version
1. Engine, passenger area and boot area enclosed together.
2. Passenger and boot area enclosed with separate engine area
Can also have third row of seating.
Taller and generally more spacious as they are people carriers.
Not feature rich hence cost is usually on the lower side.
 Pick Up

They have a separate engine area, a passenger

area anda large loading area.
Large tyres
High load carrying capacity
Good ground clearance.
Sation-Wagens / Estates

A station wagon, also called an estate car, estate or wagon, is a car body
style which has a two-box design, a large cargo area and a rear tailgate
that is hinged to open for access to the cargo area.
Basic Terminologies
Lets look at some common automotive terms:
 Ground Clearance

Distance between the ground and lowest portion of the

bottom of a vehicle
Can also be measured at other points on the vehicle. Avoids scraping
the bottom of the vehicle body on rough
roads and terrain.
 Tread

Front Tread
Rear Tread

Distance between the front or rear wheels measured from

the tyres center point.

A wider tread generally gives more stability.

Wheel Base

Wheel Base

Distance between the center of the front wheels and the

center of the rear wheels.
A longer wheel base generally leads to more passenger
space, and results in enhanced vehicle stability at high speeds
Turning Radius

Turning Radius

Smallest Radius in which car can turn.

Lower turning radius improves the maneuverability of the car
Definite advantage in city driving.
It is usually measured from the center point of the outer most wheel
Engine& Engine Systems
Petrol Engine Operation

Stroke 1 (Intake) – air & fuel mixture enters

cylinder
Stroke 2 (Compression) – air & fuel mixture is
compressed
Stroke 3 (Power) – spark plug fires, ignites fuel.
Stroke 4 (Exhaust) – burnt gases are
expelled from the engine
Power is generated only during the power
stroke
Process of 4 strokes is repeated to keep
engine running.
 Diesel Engine Operation

Stroke 1 (intake) – only air enters

cylinder.

Stroke 2 (compression) – air is

compressed to high extent, raising its
temperature.

Stroke 3 (power) – diesel is

injected, high air temperature
ignites diesel.

Stroke 4 (exhaust) – burnt gases

are expelled from the engine.
Differences in Operations
Petrol
• Stroke 1 (intake) – air & fuel
mixture enters cylinder
• Stroke 2 (compression) – air
& fuel mixture is
compressed
• Stroke 3 (power) – spark
plug fires, ignites fuel.
• Stroke 4 (exhaust) – burnt
gases are expelled from the
engine
Diesel
• Stroke 1 (intake) – only air
enters cylinder.
• Stroke 2 (compression) – air is
compressed to high extent, raising
temperature.
• Stroke 3 (power) – diesel is
injected, high air temperature
ignites diesel.
• Stroke 4 (exhaust) – burnt gases
are expelled from the engine.
Engine And Engine Basics
SIZE OF ENGINE (CC)=
Dia of cylinder

Dia. of Cylinder x length TDC

X Number of Cylinders of stroke Length
Of
Stroke
Measurement taken in cubic centimeters (cc) (mm)
BDC
1000cc = 1 liter (litre)
e.g. Cylinder Bl ock
Cylinder Bl ock

1800cc engine = 1.8 Liter

No. of Cylinders = 4
Higher cc of e n g i n e r e s u l t s i n h i g h e r
a m o u n t o f of power generation

Cylinder Bl ock Cylinder Bl ock Cylinder Bl ock Cylinder Bl ock

 Valves

Valves are provide

engine to “breathe” (to take in
air & fuel and to let out exhaust
gases).

We know that at least 2 valves

are required in each cylinder of
engine.

One for intake and other one for

exhaust.
 No of Valves

However it is possible to have

more than 2 valves in each
cylinder such as 3 or 4

In 3 valves cylinder 2 valves are for

intake and 1 for exhaust.

In 4 valves cylinder 2 valves are for

intake and 2 for exhaust
 Camshaft‘s

The part of the engine which opens and closes the

valves is called Cam Shaft’s
The Layout of camshaft and valves in the engine is
called camshaft arrangements

There are different types of Valve and Camshaft arrangement

in engines depending on shape, size and use of engine.
Crank Shaft’s

Crankshaft is a part of the engine that helps you convert the linear motion of the Piston into rotary
motion that can be delivered to the gearbox/wheels.
Without the crankshaft you can't transfer the reciprocating motion of pistons to the drive shaft.
It also holds The flywheel which is like an energy reservoir that helps maintain the constant
reciprocating motion of the Piston without any mis-alignment and mis-firing.
It's also the connecting link between the engine and the gearbox/drive shaft. Power is delivered
from the crankshaft to the wheels/gearbox thus we calculate BHP that is produced at the crankshaft
for more precision.
 Single Over Head Camshaft (SOHC)

• Here, all inlet and exhaust valves are operated by one

camshaft directly that is located above the cylinder block.

• This type of arrangements is superior to the older

arrangement operating the valve through push rods.
 Dual Over Head Cam Shafts (DOHC)

These engines have two camshafts over the engine head, one to operate the intake valves
and the other to operate the exhaust valves

This generally makes the operation more precise and thus it is easier for the car to give
better performance and efficency
Dual Over Head Camshafts (DOHC)

DOHC features & benefits

Two camshafts placed on cylinder head
Faster valve response (better control on valve timing)
Engine operates efficiently at high speed too
Efficient combustion
More powerful engine
Engine Performance

Engine performance is presented by various

manufacturers using the following terms:

• Power – BHP (break horse power)/ PS (Pferdestärke)

• Torque – NM (neuton meter)

Engine – Power (BHP)

Power – Work done per unit time.

BHP (Brake Horse Power) is unit of measuring engine power.

Depends on its torque and engine speed (RPM).

Engine Power = Torque X RPM

The higher the BHP, the more powerful an engine is.

Conversion BHP to Kw : - Multiply By 0.7457

Conversion Kw to BHP : - Multiply By 1.341

Engine – Power (PS)

PS (Pferdestärke = Horse Strength) is a German term for

Horse Power

1 PS = 0.9863 bhp

In Indian Market all the manufacturers use unit of PS or

Brake Horsepower to indicate engine power.
 Torque

Torque is a rotating force produced by an engine’s crankshaft. The more torque an engine
produces, the greater its ability to perform work
Eighteenth-century Scottish inventor James Watt gave us this handy equivalency: one
horsepower is the power required to lift 33,000 pounds
torque is the capacity to do work, while power is how quickly some strenuous task can be
accomplished. In other words, power is the rate of completing work (or applying torque) in a given
amount of time
HighTorque at Low RPM

Advantages & Benefits

Faster pick up
Lesser gear shifts
Enhanced fuel economy
Longer engine life
Lesser maintenance costs
Power To Weight Ratio

Power to weight ratio = Power Generated

Weight Of The Vehicle
A higher figure indicates more power for a given
Weight
More power for a given weight leads to better pick
up & better fuel economy (Keeping all other variables constant**)
Injection Methods- Diesel Engines

Based on the injection there are two main types of diesel

engines today

a) Direct Injection b) Indirect Injection

In a direct injection diesel engine, fuel is The injectors spray gasoline into the air
injected directly into the cylinder. intake manifold, where fuel and air mix
together into a fine mist
Direct V/S Indirect Injection

Feature Direct Injection Indirect Injection

Sound & Vibration MORE LESS

Efficiency / Economy MORE LESS

Power MORE LESS

Emissions LESS MORE

Regular Direct Injection

In this system a fuel pump, pumps fuel and also

distributes it to each injector.
This system is mechanically controlled or can be
computer controlled.
Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI)

Fuel pump pumps fuel into a rail at very high pressure. Diesel engines are infamous for unwanted noise,
black emissions, and
As the injectors are controlled by computer the injection low performance & responsiveness
can be done in small steps to reduce the noise drastically.
CRDe takes care of all these issues
This CRDe technology helps to reduce the noise
level in diesel engine while keeping all the benefits
of direct injection.
Differentiation between various ommon Rail Direct Injection

Engine Type Operation

Fuel Injection Pump mechanically
meters the fuel quantity to be injected
in the cylinder
Conventional Diesel Engine (IDI) Indirect Injection
Timing of fuel injection (& hence the
quantity) is controlled mechanically
by the FIP as per the engine RPM

The ECU (like a MPFI Petrol engine)

operates the solenoid valve injector
Diesel Engine with Electronic Fuel Injection Control Unit / Fuel quantity and injection timing is
Module controlled electronically, as such is
independent of engine RPM

The CRDI operates with

electronically controlled injection
timing and quantity and at high
Common Rail Direct Injection.
pressure throughout the injection
process (the high pressure common
rail helps maintain the high pressure)
 Advantages of CRDe

Higher Fuel Economy

Low Emissions

Low Engine Noise

High Power

High Torque
Petrol Engines Injection Methods
Carburetors:

A carburetor is a device that blends

air and fuel before it is supplied to the intake
manifold.
It is a mechanical device which used to depend
on the speed and pressure of the air passing
through it.
This device had its limitations which led to fuel
injection becoming the preferred method of
automotive fuel delivery.
Limitations of Carburetors
In a carburetor the ratio of air & fuel in the injected mixture has to be preset. So the mixture is
either fixed as lean or rich.
This causes the cars to be either under powered or overcharged.
So it was primarily due to the stricter emission norms and the ever increasing quest for
engine power a better solution for this problem was required.
 Engine Management System
To ensure thata correct proportion of air and fuel is supplied to the engine in all conditions.Earlier, performed by
the carburettor, Now computerized system calculates the required air-fuel ratios.Which resultes in improved
performance, fuel efficiency & lower emissions.Controlled by a computer called Engine Control Module
(ECM)

The new device that replaced the carburetors was the fuel injection system that primarily comprised of
:
An Electronic Control Module
(ECM)
A fuel injector
A fuel pump with this kind of a fuel injection
setup is called
Single Point Fuel Injection
(SPFI) OR
Throttle Body Injection (TBI)
 SPFI

Disadvantages of SPFI:
Since the injection setup was feeding fuel to all the
cylinders on every cycle hence they were not
economical and caused a lot of pollution.

So, with the increasing need for refined engines and

even stricter emission norms coming in, the injection
technology moveda step up.

Latest in the injection technology is the:

Multi Point Fuel Injection (MPFI)
 Multi Point Fuel Injections

In MPFi (Multi Port Fuel Injection) system there is an electronic fuel injector for each cylinder.

These injectors spray fuel into the cylinders.

MPFI CONTINUED

With the advanced microprocessor technology coming in, the ECMs became more powerful and
amore precise fuel injection timing was attained.

There are different injection timings that are

used in different driving conditions:

Simultaneous Group Sequential

Sequential
Injection Injection
Injection
Transmission System‘s
Transmission = Gearbox

To vary the engine torque as per the driving needs and transfer it to wheels.
Lower gear (1st, 2nd etc) for more torque (turning force) & less speed. For example at starting,
climbing etc
Higher gears for more speed but less torque like highway driving

Basically there are Two types of transmissions in car

Manual Transmissions
Automatic Transmissions
Manual Transmissions

Manual Transmissions Benefits:

Advantages:
•Cheaper to manufacture than A/T
•Economical on fuel
•Easy to maintain
•Lighter than A/T units
•Lower vehicle cost
•Fuel efficient
•Lower maintenance cost
Automatic Transmission Gear Box

In automatic transmission, the gearbox changes gear ratios automatically as the vehicle moves, thus freeing
the driver from having to shift gears manually.
 Gear Ratios

Example : - If driving gear = 20 teeth and driven gear

= 40 teeth, the gear ratio is 2 to 1. The driven gear makes one
revolution for every two revolutions of the drive gear.

In an overdrive gear (Usually 5th) the ratio is such that

the output shaft rotates faster then the input shaft.

Example : -
Gear Ratio
1st gear 2.97:1
2nd gear 2.07:1
3rd gear 1.43:1
4th gear 1.00:1
5th gear 0.84:1
Reverse 3.28:1
Drive Train Types

Rear Wheel Drive

Front Wheel Drive
Here the drive train channels the power of Here the drive train channels the power of the
the engine to the Front two Wheels. engine to the Rear Wheels

All Wheel Drive Train

Here the drive train channels the power of the
engine to both the front & rear differential and
Wheels.
Differential

Transmits power to the wheels while allowing them to rotate at different speeds.
When turning a cars inside wheels travel a shorter distance than the
outside wheels.
The differential is a device that splits the engine torque two ways, allowing each
wheel to spin at a different speed.
Braking System
Types of Braking System
There are two types of braking system Drum & Disc Type
Drum Brakes:
This type of brakes have a round shape of revolving
drum attached to the wheels and twobrake shoes
that expand within the round drum when you apply
the brakes. The friction between shoes and the drum
causes the vehicle to slow or stop.
Disc Brakes
Revolving disc attached to the
wheels
Pads which touch the disc to stop it
More effective than drum brakes
Generally used on the front wheels.
The front wheels require better braking, as most of
the vehicle load shift towards the front of the
vehicle during braking.
Steering System

The steering system enables the driver to effect directional control of

the vehicle.
Rack & Pinion steering system. Most passenger cars use rack and
pinion system

Power Steering – Hydraulic

Power Steering helps to reduce the effort

of the driver to turn the steering wheel. In rack and
pinnion power steering rack movement is assisted
by pressurised oil
The power steering system is powered from the
engine via a drive belt anda pump. Therefore it is
important to remember that the poer assistance is
available to steering only when the engine is
running
Electronic power steering

Here the rack movement is assisted by a motor powered

by electric current.
The Power assistance is available to steering, only when
the ignition is “ON”.
 Electronic vs Hydraulic Steering
• Lighter steering feel.
• Environmentally friendly as no use
of hydraulic oil.
• Marginal improvement in fuel
efficiency as the engine
power required to run the
hydraulic pump is saved.
•Application limited to smaller
passenger vehicles
• Gives a continuos feedback from
the road unlike EPS
• Does not need to be cut off
at high speeds (Unlike EPS)
as the speed of the motor
depends on engine RPM.
Suspension System
Components of Suspension System

Springs:
•The car body is supported by the spring on each wheel.

Function of Springs:

•Absorbs the major part of shocks generated by irregular

road surface thus providing a smooth ride.

•These springs compress when car hits a bumpand

expand when the wheel goes over potholes on the road.

Other parts like tyres, springs & foam used in the seats also
help in absorbing these shocks to improve ride quality.
Shock absorber/Damper & its Function

• Spring has the tendency to compress and

lengthen (oscillate) for a time.
• This behaviour can produce a very bouncy and
uncomfortable ride.
• This also makes the car difficult to control. Therefore
• shock absorber is used to control the
oscillation of springs.
• In shock absorber a piston moves inside pushing the oil to
escape through small openings.
• This slows movement of piston and thus dampens the
spring action.
• In some cases the dampers use gas which gives a better ride
& does not leak easily, & also lasts longer.
Always wear Seat belts
MacPherson Struts

• The strut will usually carry both the coil

spring on which the body is suspended and the
shock absorber, which is usually in the form of
a cartridge mounted within the strut.
Advantages
• It allows for more width in the engine bay,
which is useful for smaller cars.
• Simple assembly & low manufacturing cost.
Type of Suspension systems

Non-Independent Suspension (Rigid Link Axle):

•Left and right wheels are connected together with
the help of a solid link
•Movement of one wheel also affects the other wheel

•Hence the ride and handling of the vehicle is not very

good.
•Has a higher load capability
•Preferred on heavier and utility vehicles.
Types of Suspension System

Independent Suspension:
•Left and right wheels are not connected together
by a solid link
Each wheel can move up and down independently
of irrespective of the other being affected.
Advantageous
Better ride and handling
Most cars have independent systems on the
front and some cars have all four-wheel
independent suspension.
Type of Suspension systems
Semi-Independent Suspension:

Left and right wheels are connected together with

the help of a flexible link
Movement of one wheel does not affect the other
wheel entirely.
Has the benefits of both, non independent and fully
independent systems.
 Other Related Terms in Suspension

Anti Roll (Stabilizer) Bar

Compression of the springs

causes the body to roll during
cornering.
Anti roll bar reduces this roll
and improves the vehicle
handling
The resistance to twist the bar
during cornering controls the roll
Attached to the both left &
right side of suspension.
Can be fitted on the front and
rear or only one place
Multi-Link Suspension

Multi link suspension has 3

or more links (control arms, rods
etc) to connecteach •wheel with
the vehicle body.
Due to a higher number of linkages
the suspension behaves better and
thus gives a
•
better ride and handling.
Scorpio is equipped with multi link
rear suspension.
Tyres

175/70-R-13

Tyres size is usually identified by a code that looks like the number
alongside. The significance of these numbers is as below:

1. Tyre width in mm
2. Aspect Ratio (Height/Width)
3. R for radial tyre
4. Rim Diameter in Inches.
RADIAL Tire
The simple definition of a Radial type tire: The
radial is a type of tire that is constructed with
rubber coated, reinforcing steel cable belts that are
assembled parallel and run from side to side, bead
to bead at an angle of 90 degrees to the
circumferential centerline of the tire. (As opposed
to the 30 degree alternating application lengthwise
as in bias ply tires). This makes the tire more
flexible which reduces rolling resistance to improve
fuel economy. Then numerous rubber coated steel
belts are then constructed into the “crown” of the
tire under the tread to form a strong stable two-
stage unit.
 Aspect Ratio
1 2 1 2

Application Of Lateral Forces

Example 1 : Tire height => (.75 X 235 = 176.25 mm)

Example 2 : Tire height => (.45 X 295 = 132.75 mm)

• The smaller the aspect ratio, the wider the tire in relation to
its height.
• When a car goes around a turn lateral forces are generated
and the tire must resist these forces.
• Tires with a lower profile have shorter, stiffer sidewalls so they
resist cornering forces better.
 Tubeless Tyre

Tubeless Tyre Tube Type Tyre

Q. What are the benefits of tubeless tyres?
Tubeless tyres are tyres wherein there is no tube, the air is held between the tyre and the rim. The advantages
of this are:-Incase of a puncture, the air does not rapidly escape through the valve hole as the valve is fitted to
the rim, the air if at all only escapes slowly. The chances of a blow out are also minimal.

The ride & handling is also marginally better. The mileage too increases
slightly.And the only care one has to take is when changing a tyre or repairing,
is the work should be done ona machine nota local hammer job.
Heating & Air-Conditioning System
Air Conditioning System

To cool the vehicle interior

To reduce humidity
Windows can remain closed
which maintains the
vehicle’s aerodynamics. This
results in improved• fuel
•
economy and reduction of
•
traffic noise and fumes.
Avoids misting of glasses.
Reduces driver fatigue.
 FATC (Fully Automatic Temperature Control)

• FATC maintains cabin temperature at the

selected level irrespective of outside weather
conditions.
• It does so by continuously monitoring inside &
outside temperature and automatically making
adjustments to the system components like the
compressor, blower, vent selection etc.
Safety System
Vehicle Safety Features

Safety features in automobiles can be grouped in

to:
• Active Safety Systems,
• Passive Safety Systems
Active Safety Systems
These systems avoid accidents and hence they function at all times during
use of the vehicle. E.g. Vacuum Assisted (power) Brakes. Anti-Lock Brake
(ABS) System. Electronic Brake Distribution (EBD) System. Spoiler,
Child Lock and Rear Window Demister etc.

Passive Safety Systems

These systems reduce the level of injury to the occupant and increase
their safety in case of accident. E.g. Laminated Windshield Glass, Seat
Belts, Side Impact Beams, Crumple Zones, Collapsible Steering
Column, Head Restraints, Anti Submarine seats, Air Bags, Monocoque
Body Structure etc.
Crumple Zones

Crumple Zones are deformable structures, provided in the car.

Advantage:
These are intentionally designed to deform during an accident and absorb
the impact of the collision.

Benefits:
This increases the safety of passengers.
 Side Impact Beams/Bars

The side impact bars are

provided in the doors to reduce injuries during
collisions into the side of the car.
 Seat Belts

•
Seat belts protect the passengers from injury in the
event of an accident.
The Emergency Locking • Retractor (ELR) mechanism in
the seat belt locks the belt during a sudden stop or
impact.
•
At the Same time ELR mechanism allows the freedom
of movement under normal conditions.
Safety

Pretensionor:

The idea of a pretensionor is to tighten up any slack in the

belt webbing in the event of a crash.
This force helps move the passenger into the optimum crash
position in his or her seat.

Seatbelt pretensionors and force limiters work together to reduce the

impact forces transferred to an occupant in a crash.
Safety

• Generally, pretensionors are wired to the same

central control processor that activates the car's air
bags.
• The processor monitors mechanical or electronic
motion sensors that respond to the sudden
deceleration of an impact.
• When an impact is detected, the processor
activates the pretensionor and then the air bag.
Safety

Air Bags:
Airbags are credited with
reducing numerous
injuries and saving many
lives during vehicle
accidents.
 Safety
Single - DAB
ACU

AIRBAG*
FIS

- Flexible membrane or envelope

- Provides cushioning in case of
automobile collision

Single - PAB Seat Belt

Componentsof Dualairbag Pre-tensioner

• ACU (Airbag Control Unit): Located in the area below the parking brake lever.
• G Force Sensor : Senses sudden deceleration and the G Forces acting on the
vehicle. Ensures the airbags are opened only when required (G forces are above or
equal toa threshold value).
• DAB (Driver Airbag) module housed in the center of the steering wheel
• PAB (Passenger Airbag) module is located in the passenger side crash pad.
FIS (Front Impact Sensors) : Sends the signals to airbag to inflate in case of collision
SPT (Seatbelt Pre-tensioner)
It helps to reduce the severity of injury to the front occupant
ABS (Anti Lock Breaking System)

Effective at even low speeds

Anti Locking Brake• System sensors
mounted on the wheels continuous
monitor wheel speed and the system
modulates braking pressure to prevent
wheel lock up.

With wheel lock up prevented

•
the car can come toa perfect
controlled stop on all surface
conditions with the driver always
having steering control.
ELECTRONIC BRAKE FORCE DISTRIBUTION (EBD)

Electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD or EBFD) or electronic brakeforce limitation (EBL) is an

automobile brake technology that automatically varies the amount of force applied to each of a
vehicle's wheels, based on road conditions, speed, loading, etc. Always coupled with anti-lock
braking system(ABS), EBD can apply more or less braking pressure to each wheel in order to
maximize stopping power whilst maintaining vehicular control. Typically, the front end carries the
most weight and EBD distributes less braking pressure to the rear brakes so the rear brakes do not
lock up and cause a skid . In some systems, EBD distributes more braking pressure at the rear
brakes during initial brake application before the effects of weight transfer become apparent.
ELECTRONIC STABILITY CONTROL (ESC)

Electronic stability control (ESC), also referred to as electronic stability program (ESP) or dynamic
stability control (DSC), is a computerized technology that improves a vehicles stability by detecting
and reducing loss of traction (skidding). When ESC detects loss of steering control, it automatically
applies the brakes to help "steer" the vehicle where the driver intends to go. Braking is
automatically applied to wheels individually, such as the outer front wheel to counter oversteer, or
the inner rear wheel to counter understeer. Some ESC systems also reduce engine power until
control is regained. ESC does not improve a vehicle's cornering performance; instead, it helps to
minimize the loss of control
Head Restraints

Head restraints installed on top of the seat reduce the risk of neck
injuries (whiplash injuries) in the case of a rear collision.

With Proper Restraint

Without Proper Restraint

Collapsible Steering Column

•Made of telescopic tube

•Designed to collapse
•During a collision, one tube slide one into the other.
•Reduces the potential for injury to the driver’s chest