Hypothesis

Prepared By:- Group 1

Wagari Refu

Teklewoin Kassaye
Zewdu Hakimu
Meseret Yohannes

Hunbelew GebreTsadik

Michael Gezae
Learning Outcomes
 Upon completion of this program, we will be able to

◦ Explain the meaning and significance of hypothesis in scientific research

◦ Identify the types of hypotheses

◦ Illustrate why we need a hypothesis

◦ Identify and categorize research variables

◦ Create Operational Definitions

◦ Formulate a valid hypothesis

◦ Identify Characteristics of a good hypothesis

◦ Test the hypothesis

Presentation Content
 Brief summary on the Scientific Method
 Meaning of Hypothesis

 Meaning and Types of variables

 Characteristics of Hypothesis
 Categories of Hypothesis
 Forming a Hypothesis

 Testing a Hypothesis
 The scientific Method
 Is an overarching perspective
 On how scientific investigations should proceed

 Consists of a set of research principles and

methods

 that help researchers obtain valid results

 from their research studies

The scientific Method (Cont…)
 Researchers generally agree that the scientific
method is composed of the following key
elements
1. An empirical approach,
2. Observations,
3. Questions,
4. Hypotheses,
5. Experiments,
6. Analyses,
7. Conclusions, and
8. Replication
 Research Questions & Hypothesis

 Hypothesis is the fourth element of the

scientific method

 However, we may not use hypothesis for all

types of research.

 In a qualitative study, inquirers state research

questions, not objectives (i.e., specific goals for the
research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions that
involve variables and statistical tests).
 Research Questions & Hypothesis
 In qualitative research, the research questions
assume two forms:
 a central question and
 associated sub questions

 The central question is a statement of the

question being examined in the study in its
most general form.
 so as to not limit the inquiry
Guidelines for writing broad, qualitative
research questions:
 Ask one or two central questions followed by no
more than five to seven sub-questions
 Relate the central question to the specific qualitative
strategy of inquiry (like ethnography , phenomenology,
etc)
 Begin the research questions with the words “what”
or “how” to convey an open and emerging design
Examples:
 How do women in a psychology doctoral program describe their
decision to return to school?
 “What is it like for a mother to live with a teenage child who is
dying of cancer?”

 Focus on a single phenomenon or concept

Guidelines (Cont…)
 Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of emerging
design of research. These verbs tell the reader that the study
will
 Discover (e.g., grounded theory)
 Seek to understand (e.g., ethnography)
 Explore a process (e.g., case study)
 Describe the experiences (e.g., phenomenology)
 Report the stories (e.g., narrative research)
 Use non-directional language
 Expect the research questions to evolve and to change during
the study
 Use open-ended questions without reference to the
literature or theory
 If the information is not redundant with the purpose
statement, specify the participants and the research site for
the study
Hypothesis Defined
 An educated guess

 A tentative point of view

 A proposition not yet tested

 A preliminary explanation

 A preliminary Postulate
Various Authors
 “A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation
between two or more variables”. (Kerlinger, 1956)

 “Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches –

assumed for use in devising theory or planning experiments
intended to be given a direct experimental test when
possible”. (Eric Rogers, 1966)

 “Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected

relationship between an independent and dependent
variable.”(Creswell, 1994)

 A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, an

educated conjecture. It provides a tentative explanation for a
phenomenon under investigation." (Leedy and Ormrod,
2001).
Hypothesis vs Theory vs Fact
 A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to
explain some aspect of the natural world. A theory arises from repeated
observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and
tested hypotheses that are widely accepted.
 A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to
happen in your study. For example, a study designed to look at the
relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a
hypothesis that states, “This study is designed to assess the hypothesis
that students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety.” Unless
your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain
what you expect to happen during the course of your experiment or
research.
 While the terms are sometimes used interchangeably in general practice,
the difference between a theory and a hypothesis is important when
studying experimental design. Some important distinctions to note
include:

 A theory predicts events in general terms, while a hypothesis makes a

specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.

 A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted, while a

hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.
 Hypothesis
• A specific, testable
prediction about what is
expected to happen in a
study
•makes a specific prediction
about a specified set of
circumstances
•a speculative guess that has predictions, and tested
yet to be tested
•is new and relatively
untested
•the probability of error
and correction are high
Theory Fact
• Well-established •is something which is
principle which predicts assumed to be true
events in general terms
•once a theory has been
• Arises from repeated confirmed and
observation and testing reconfirmed over and
over again, we get to the
•Incorporates facts, laws, point that it will be
treated as a "fact"
hypotheses that are
widely accepted •doesn't mean 'absolute
certainty
•extensively tested and is
generally accepted

One common feature for facts, theories, and hypotheses in

science is that they are all treated as fallible — the likelihood of
error might vary greatly, but they are still regarded as something
less than absolute truth.
Purpose
 Guides/gives direction to the study/investigation
 Defines Facts that are relevant and not relevant

 Suggests which form of research design is likely to be the most

appropriate

 Provides a framework for organizing the conclusions of the findings

 Limits the research to specific area

 Offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can
be empirically tested
 Furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background knowledge
to enable her/him to make suggestions in order to extend existing
knowledge

 Structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes

continuity to the examination of the problem
Basis
 Individual experience,

 Socio-Culture background,

 Business Ethic,

 Economic events

 Etc..
 Forms of Hypothesis
 Hypotheses can take various forms, depending
on the question being asked and the type of
study being conducted
◦ Some hypotheses may simply describe how two things may
be related. For example, correlational research
◦ In others the researcher might hypothesize that one
variable causes a change in the other variable (causal
relationship
 In their simplest forms, hypotheses are typically
phrased as “if-then” statements
A Hypothesis
 must make a prediction
 must identify at least two variables
 should have an elucidating power
 should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation or
accounting of a fact
 must be falsifiable meaning hypotheses must be
capable of being refuted based on the results of the
study
 must be formulated in simple, understandable terms
 should correspond with existing knowledge
 In general, a hypothesis needs to be unambiguous
specific, quantifiable, testable and generalizable.
Characteristics of a Testable Hypothesis
1. A Hypothesis must be conceptually clear
- concepts should be clearly defined
- the definitions should be commonly accepted
- the definitions should be easily communicable

2. The hypothesis should have empirical reference

- Variables in the hypothesis should be empirical realities
- If they are not it would not be possible to make the
observation and ultimately the test

3. The Hypothesis must be specific

- Place, situation and operation
Characteristics of a Testable Hypothesis
4. A hypothesis should be related to available
techniques of research
- Either the techniques are already available or
- The researcher should be in a position to develop suitable
techniques

5. The hypothesis should be related to a body of

theory
- Hypothesis has to be supported by theoretical argumentation
- It should depend on the existing body of knowledge

In this way
- the study could benefit from the existing knowledge and
- later on through testing the hypothesis could contribute to the
reservoir of knowledge
Categorizing Hypotheses
Can be categorized in different ways

1. Based on their formulation

 Null Hypotheses and Alternate Hypotheses

2. Based on direction
 Directional and Non-directional Hypothesis

3. Based on their derivation

 Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses
Categorizing Hypotheses (Cont…)

1. Null Hypotheses and Alternate Hypotheses

 Null hypothesis always predicts that
◦ no differences between the groups being studied (e.g.,
experimental vs. control group) or
◦ no relationship between the variables being studied

 By contrast, the alternate hypothesis always predicts

that there will be a difference between the groups
being studied (or a relationship between the
variables being studied)
Categorizing Hypotheses (Cont…)
 Alternate Hypothesis can further be
classified as
2. Directional Hypothesis and Non-
directional Hypothesis
Categorizing Hypotheses (Cont…)
2. Directional Hypothesis and Non-directional Hypothesis

 Simply based on the wording of the hypotheses we

can tell the difference between directional and non-
directional

◦ If the hypothesis simply predicts that there will be a difference

between the two groups, then it is a non-directional
hypothesis. It is non-directional because it predicts that there
will be a difference but does not specify how the groups will
differ.

◦ If, however, the hypothesis uses so-called comparison terms,

such as “greater,”“less,”“better,” or “worse,” then it is a
directional hypothesis. It is directional because it predicts that
there will be a difference between the two groups and it
specifies how the two groups will differ
Categorizing Hypotheses (Cont…)
3. Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses( Theory
Building and Theory Testing)

 classified in terms of how they were derived:

- Inductive hypothesis - a generalization based on
observation
Observation Pattern Hypothesis Theory

- Deductive hypothesis - derived from theory

Theory Hypothesis Observation Confirmation

Forming/Developing a Hypothesis
 Articulating the hypotheses that will be tested
is one of the steps in the planning phase of a
research study
 A hypothesis is formulated after
 the problem has been stated and
 the literature study has been conducted

 It is formulated when the researcher is totally

aware of the theoretical and empirical
background to the problem
The Initial Idea
 The initial idea is the starting point
◦ Often vague or general, it requires refining before
research hypotheses can be generated

 Refinement of the initial idea is based on

(1) a search of relevant research literature
(2) initial observations of the phenomenon

 Narrow and formalize the initial idea

into a statement of the problem
Statement of the Problem
 In the form of a question that clearly
indicates an expected relationship

◦ The nature of the question will dictate the

required level of constraint of a study
 Causal questions will require experimental research
 Questions about relationships can be answered with
lower constraint research

 Convert into research hypothesis by

operationally defining the variables
In General
 Ideas lead to
◦ observations
◦ library research

 Then Statement of problem and

 Then Problem statements become

research hypotheses when constructs
are operationalized
 Operational Definitions
 The procedures used to measure and/or
manipulate a variable

 Most variables can be operationally

defined in many different ways,

 Thus creating many different research

hypotheses from a single statement of a
problem
 Hypotheses
 States clearly the expected relationship
between the variables

 The form is a declarative statement,

but it is a tentative statement to be
tested in research

 Implicitly or explicitly, the variables in

the research hypothesis are stated in
operational definition terms
The Role of Theory
 In research planning, theory guides the
process

◦ Theory is often the primary source of research

hypotheses

◦ Theory guides the selection of variables as well

as their operational definitions

 Most research is based on multiple,

overlapping and interacting theories
Variables
 Any factor that can take on different values is
a scientific variable and influences the
outcome of a research.
 Examples include
 Gender,
 Colour,
 Country
 Weight,
 Time,
 Height, etc..
Types of Variables
There are many categories of variables

 Independent vs. Dependent vs.

Controlled Variables

 Categorical vs. Continuous Variables

 Quantitative vs. Qualitative Variables

Independent vs. Dependent vs. Controlled
Variables
 The independent variable is called “independent” because
it is independent of the outcome being measured.
◦ It is what causes or influences the outcome.

 The dependent variable is influenced by the independent

variable.

 Controlled variables are variables that the scientist does

not want to change during the course of the experiment

 Hence the research includes

 finding ways to vary the independent variable
 Finding ways to keep the controlled variables from changing and
 measure the dependent variable
Categorical vs. Continuous Variables
 Categorical variables are variables that can take on specific values only within a
defined range of values like gender, marital status
 consisting of discrete, mutually exclusive categories, such as “male/female,”
“White/Black,” etc

 Continuous variables are variables that can theoretically take on any value along a
continuum like age, income weight, height etc..

 When compared with categorical variables, continuous variables can be measured

with a greater degree of precision.

 The choice of which statistical tests will be used to analyze the data is partially
dependent on whether the researcher uses categorical or continuous variables.

 Certain statistical tests are appropriate for categorical variables, while other
statistical tests are appropriate for continuous variables.

 As with many decisions in the research-planning process, the choice of which type
of variable to use is partially dependent on the question that the researcher is
attempting to answer.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Variables
 Qualitative variables are variables that vary
in kind, like “attractive” or “not attractive,”
“helpful” or “not helpful,” or “consistent”
or “not consistent”

 Quantitative variables are those that vary in

amount like height, weight, salary etc
Summary - Hypothesis Formation
 First identify a general area of interest to be researched;
Example: effects of smoking on health
 Then identify a research question – the research question should be more
narrowly defined (more specific) than the general research topic.
Example: “Does smoking cause lung cancer?”

 Then operationally define the variables. The researcher is in control of the

independent variable in the experiment. The dependant variable, however,
is merely observed in the context of the experiment. For an experiment
to be valid, it must contain at least two variables.

 Now it is time to formulate the hypothesis in an attempt to answer the

question by making it a conditional statement like
"Smoking may cause lung cancer.”

 Refine it by writing a formalized hypothesis like "If smoking causes lung

cancer, then individuals who smoke have a higher frequency of developing the
disease." This type of "if-then" hypothesis is considered the most useful.

 Verify that the hypothesis includes a subject group. A subject group defines
who or what the researcher is studying. In the example above, the subject
group is the smokers.
Summary (Cont…)
1. Verify that a treatment or exposure is included in the
experiment. A treatment is literally what is being done to the
subject group. In our example, the exposure is smoke or
smoking.

2. Prepare for an outcome measure, which is a measurement

concerned with how the treatment is going to be assessed.
The outcome measure in our smoking scenario is the
frequency of smokers developing cancer in subject population.

3. Understand your control group. The control group or placebo

is a group similar to the subject group, but this group does not
receive the treatment. It is a population that the subject group
is compared to. In the smoking example, the control group is
non-smokers.

4. Remember: - Hypothesis can be adjusted/refined/changed as

more information is gathered but before the actual
examination/experiment is carried out.
Hypothesis Testing
 All hypothesis tests are conducted the same
way.
 The researcher
1. states a hypothesis to be tested,

2. formulates an analysis plan,

3. analyzes sample data according to the plan, and

4. accepts or rejects the null hypothesis, based on

results of the analysis.
Hypothesis Testing (Cont..)
1. State the hypotheses.
Every hypothesis test requires the analyst to state a null and an
alternative hypothesis. The hypotheses are stated in such a way that they
are mutually exclusive. That is, if one is true, the other must be false; and
vice versa.

2. Formulate an analysis plan.

The analysis plan describes how to use sample data to accept or reject
the null hypothesis. It should specify the following elements.
◦ Significance level.
Often, researchers choose significance levels equal to 0.01, 0.05, or 0.10; but
any value between 0 and 1 can be used.
◦ Test method.
Typically, the test method involves a test statistic and a sampling distribution.
Computed from sample data, the test statistic might be a mean score,
proportion, difference between means, difference between proportions, z-
score, t-score, chi-square, etc. Given a test statistic and its sampling
distribution, a researcher can assess probabilities associated with the test
statistic. If the test statistic probability is less than the significance level, the null
hypothesis is rejected.
 Hypothesis Testing (Cont..)
 Analyze sample data.
Using sample data perform computations called for in the analysis plan.
Test statistic.
When the null hypothesis involves a mean or proportion, use either of
the following equations to compute the test statistic.
 Test statistic = (Statistic - Parameter) / (Standard deviation of statistic)
Test statistic = (Statistic - Parameter) / (Standard error of statistic)
 where Parameter is the value appearing in the null hypothesis,
and Statistic is the point estimate of Parameter. As part of the analysis, you
may need to compute the standard deviation or standard error of the
statistic. Previously, we presented common formulas for the standard
deviation and standard error.
When the parameter in the null hypothesis involves categorical data, you
may use a chi-square statistic as the test statistic. Instructions for
computing a chi-square test statistic are presented in the lesson on
the chi-square goodness of fit test.
◦ P-value. The P-value is the probability of observing a sample statistic as
extreme as the test statistic, assuming the null hypothesis is true.
Hypothesis Testing
 When you want to make statements about a
population, you usually draw samples
 How generalizable is the sample-based finding?
 Evidence has to be evaluated statistically
before arriving at a conclusion regarding the
hypothesis
 Depends on whether information is
generated from the sample with fewer or
larger observations
Steps in Hypothesis Testing
Problem Definition

Clearly state the null and

alternate hypotheses.

Choose the relevant test

and the appropriate
probability distribution
Determine the
Determine the
Choose the critical value degrees of
significance level
freedom

Compute relevant Compare test statistic and Decide if one-or

test statistic critical value two-tailed test

Does the test statistic fall No

in the critical region? Do not reject null
Yes
Reject null
Basic Concepts of Hypothesis Testing
 The Null and Alternate hypothesis
 Choosing the relevant statistical test and
appropriate probability distribution. Depends on
- Size of the sample
- Whether the population standard deviation
is known or not
 Choosing the Critical Value. The three criteria
used are
- Significance Level
- Degrees of Freedom
- One or Two Tailed Test
Significance Level
 Indicates the percentage of sample means
that is outside the cut-off limits (critical
value)
 The higher the significance level () used for
testing a hypothesis, the higher the
probability of rejecting a null hypothesis when
it is true (Type I error)
 Accepting a null hypothesis when it is false is
called a Type II error and its probability is
()
Significance Level (Contd.)
 When choosing a level of significance,
there is an inherent tradeoff between
these two types of errors
 Power of hypothesis test (1 - )
 A good test of hypothesis ought to reject
a null hypothesis when it is false
 1 -  should be as high a value as possible
Degree of Freedom
 The number or bits of "free" or
unconstrained data used in calculating a
sample statistic or test statistic
 A sample mean (X) has `n' degree of
freedom
 A sample variance (s2) has (n-1) degrees
of freedom
One or Two-tail Test
 One-tailed Hypothesis Test
 Determines whether a particular population parameter is
larger or smaller than some predefined value

 Uses one critical value of test statistic

 Two-tailed Hypothesis Test
 Determines the likelihood that a population parameter is
within certain upper and lower bounds

 May use one or two critical values

Hypothesis Testing

DATA ANALYSIS
OUTCOME
In Population Accept Null Reject Null
Hypothesis Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis Correct Decision Type I Error
True
Null Hypothesis Type II Error Correct
False Decision
Hypothesis Testing About a Single Mean
 Step-by-Step
1) Formulate Hypotheses
2) Select appropriate formula
3) Select significance level
4) Calculate z or t statistic
5) Calculate degrees of freedom (for t-test)
6) Obtain critical value from table
7) Make decision regarding the Null-hypothesis
Hypothesis Testing About a Single
Mean - Example 1(2 tailed)
 Ho:  = 5000 (hypothesized value of population)
 Ha:   5000 (alternative hypothesis)
 n = 100
= 4960
  = 250
  = 0.05

Rejection rule: if |zcalc| > z/2 then reject Ho.

Hypothesis Testing About a Single
Mean - Example 2
 Ho:  = 1000 (hypothesized value of population)
 Ha:   1000 (alternative hypothesis)
 n = 12
= 1087.1
 s = 191.6
  = 0.01

Rejection rule: if |tcalc| > tdf, /2 then reject Ho.

Hypothesis Testing About a Single
Mean - Example 3(1 tailed)
 Ho:  5000 (hypothesized value of population)
 Ha:  < 5000 (alternative hypothesis)
 n = 50
= 4970
  = 250
  = 0.01

Rejection rule: if then reject Ho.

Hypothesis Test of Difference
between Means
 Mayor of a city wants to see if males and
females earn the same
 A random sample of 400 males and 576
females was taken and following was
found

Males Females

Mean $105.70 $112.80

Standard Deviation $5.00 $4.80
Hypothesis Test of Difference
between Means
 The appropriate test depends on
- whether samples are from related or
unrelated samples
- whether population standard deviations
are known or not
- if not, whether they can be assumed to
be equal or not
Hypothesis Test of Difference between
Means
 In salary example, the null hypothesis is
Ho: 1- 2 =c (=0)
Ha: 1- 2  c
 Since we have unrelated samples with known (for
large samples, we can use sample SD as pop SD)
but unequal ’s the standard error of difference in
means is

s12 s22 52 (4.80)2

S X1  X 2      .32
n1 n2 400 576
Hypothesis Test of Difference
between Means
 The calculated value of z is
( X 1  X 2 )  ( 1  2 )
zcalc   22.19
S X1  X 2

 For =.01 and a two-tailed test, the Z-

table value is 2.58
 Since is greater than , the
null hypothesis is rejected
Hypothesis Testing of Proportion
 Quality control dept of a light bulb
company claims 95% of its products are
defect free
 The CEO checks 225 bulbs and finds only
87% to be defect free
 Is the claim of 95% true at .05 level of
significance ?
 So we have hypothesized values
and sample values
Hypothesis Testing of Proportion
 The null hypothesis is Ho:p=0.95
 The alternate hypothesis is Ha: p 0.95
 First, calculate the standard error of the
proportion using hypothesized values as
po qo .95  .05
p    .0145
n 225

 Since np and nq are large, we can use the Z

table. The appropriate z value is 1.96
Hypothesis Testing of Proportion
 The limits of the acceptance region are
po  1.96 p  .95  (1.96  .0145)  (.922, .978)

 Since the sample proportion of 0.87 does

not fall within the acceptance region, the
CEO should reject the quality control
department’s claim
 Hypothesis Testing of Difference
between Proportions
 Manager wants to see if John and Linda,
two salespeople, have the same
conversion
 He picks samples and finds that

Sample Number Proportion

size converted converted
John 100 84 0.84 (= )

Linda 100 82 0.82(= )

Hypothesis Testing of Difference
between Proportions
 Are their conversion rates different at 0.05
significance level?
 The null hypothesis is Ho:
 The alternate hypothesis is Ha:
 The best estimate of p (proportion of success)
is
n1 p j  n2 pl
pˆ 
n1  n2
 0.83 also, qˆ  1  pˆ  .17
Hypothesis Testing of Difference
between Proportions
 An estimate of the standard error of the
difference of proportions is
pˆ qˆ pˆ qˆ
ˆ p  p    .053
j l
n1 n2
 The z value can be calculated as
( p j  pl )  0
z calc   .38
ˆ p  p
j l

 The z value obtained from the table is 1.96 (for

). Thus, we fail to reject the null hypothesis
The Probability Values (P-value) Approach to
Hypothesis Testing

 P-value provides researcher with

alternative method of testing
hypothesis without pre-specifying 

 Largestlevel of significance at which

we would not reject Ho
The Probability Values (P-value) Approach to
Hypothesis Testing

Difference Between Using  and p-value

 Hypothesis testing with a pre-specified 
 Researcher is trying to determine, "is the
probability of what has been observed less than ?“

 Reject or fail to reject Ho accordingly

The Probability Values (P-value) Approach to
Hypothesis Testing
Using the p-Value
 Researcher can determine "how unlikely is the
result that has been observed?“

 Decide whether to reject or fail to reject Ho

without being bound by a pre-specified
significance level

 In general, the smaller the p-value, the greater is

the researcher's confidence in sample findings
The Probability Values (P-value) Approach to
Hypothesis Testing: Example
 Ho:  = 25 (hypothesized value of population)
 Ha:   25 (alternative hypothesis)
 n = 50
= 25.2
  = 0.7 X 

 SE(  X )= = 0.1; Z= =2
n X
 From Z-table, prob Z >2 is 0.0228. As this is a
2-tailed test, the p-value is 2 0.228=.0456
The Probability Values (P-value) Approach to
Hypothesis Testing
Using the p-Value
 P-value is generally sensitive to sample
size
 A large sample should yield a low p-value
 P-value can report the impact of the
sample size on the reliability of the results
Relationship between C.I and
Hypothesis Testing (Example 1)
 A direct mktr knows that average no of
purchases per month in entire database is 5.6
 By sampling ‘loyals’ he finds that their average is
6.1(i.e, =6.1)
 Is it merely a sampling accident?
 Ho:  = 5.6 (hypothesized value of population)
 Ha:   5.6 (alternative hypothesis)
 n = 35
  = 2.5
Relationship between C.I and
Hypothesis Testing (Example 1)
 Std err    =0.42
X
n
 The appropriate Z for  =.05 is 1.96
 The Confidence Interval is
0  1.96 X = (4.78, 6.42)
 Since 6.1 falls in the interval, we cannot
reject the null hypothesis
 Confidence Intervals and
Hypothesis Testing

 Hypothesis testing and Confidence

Intervals are two sides of the same coin.

( X  )
t=  X  tsx = Interval estimate for 
sx
Relationship between C.I and
Hypothesis Testing (Example 2)
 Revisit the first example we started with

 Test the performance of two lists in terms of

response rates

 Sample (1,000) from the first list provides a

response rate of 3.5%

 Sample (1,200) from the second list provides a

response rate of 4.5%

 Do the two lists (population) really have a

difference or is it an artifact of the sample?
Relationship between C.I and
Hypothesis Testing (Example 2)
◦ C.I. of list 1:
 (0.035)+/- 1.96*(SE1)
 SE1 = Sqrt[(0.035*0.965)/1000]=0.006
 C.I.1=(0.0232,0.0467)
◦ C.I. of list 2:
 (0.045)+/-1.96*(SE2)
 SE2=Sqrt[(0.045*0.955)/1200]=0.006
 C.I.2 =(0.033,0.0568)
◦ What can we infer based on these confidence
Intervals?
 Lack of sufficient evidence to infer that there is any difference
between the response rates in the two samples.
References
 http://www.experiment-resources.com
 http://www.ehow.com
 http://stattrek.com
 http://www.methodspace.com
 http://www.aqr.org.uk – Association of
Qualitative Research
 The books supplied by our instructor