Unit-I: Data Communication & Networking Basics

Data transfer modes, Serial and Parallel transmission, Protocols & Standards, Layered Architecture
Switching, Circuit, Message & Packet switching,. LAN, MAN & WAN, Network topologies , IEEE
standards for LAN, Ethernet, Token Bus, Token Ring, FDDI
 SESSION 1
INTRODUCTION TO DATA TRANSFER MODES
DATA COMMUNICATION
• Data communications is the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of Transmission medium such as a wire cable.
• For data communications to occur, the Communicating devices must
be part of a communication system made up of a combination of
hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
Fundamental Characteristics
Delivery:
• The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
• Data must be received only by the intended device or user.
Accuracy:
• The system must deliver the data accurately.
• Data that have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
Timeliness:
• The system must deliver data in a time manner. Data delivered late is useless.
• In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay.
Jitter:
• Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
• It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets that results in uneven
quality.
Components
Message:
• The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
• Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
Sender:
• The sender is the device that sends the data message.
• It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
Receiver:
• The receiver is the device that receives the message.
• It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
Transmission medium:
• The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver
such as twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, and radio waves.
Protocol:
• protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications between the communicating devices.
• Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating.
• The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
Components (contn..)
Data Representation
Text :
• is a sequence of bits.
• Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text.
• Each set is called a code, and the prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which
uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character used in any language.
Numbers:
• are also represented by bit patterns.
• Instead of code, the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations.
Images:
• are also represented by bit patterns. An image is composed of a matrix of pixels
(picture elements).
• Each pixel is assigned a bit pattern.
• The size and the value of the pattern depend on whether the image is binary, gray
or color.
Audio
• refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music.
• Audio is by nature different from text, numbers, or images.
• It is continuous, not discrete.
Video:
• refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie.
• Video can either be produced as a continuous entity, or it can be a combination of images in motion.
Data transfer modes
Data Flow Types
Simplex
• In simplex mode, the
communication is unidirectional.
• Only one of the two devices on a
link can transmit; the other can
only receive.
• For example, keyboard can only
introduce input; the monitor can
only accept output.
Data Flow Types
Half-Duplex

• In half-duplex mode, each station can

both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time.
• When one device is ending, the other
can only receive, and vice versa.
• Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band)
radios are both half-duplex systems.
• Thus the entire capacity of the
channel can be utilized for each
direction
Data Flow Types
Full-Duplex

• In full-duplex mode (also called

duplex), both stations can transmit
and receive simultaneously.
• An example is the telephone
network.
• Therefore, either the link must
contain two separate physical
transmission paths (sending and
receiving) or the capacity of the
channel is divided between signals
traveling in both directions
NETWORK
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected
by communication links.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of
sending and/or receiving data.
• In distributed processing, a task is divided among multiple
computers on the network, instead of one single large machine being
responsible for all processing.
Network Criteria
Performance :
• The performance of a network depends on number of users, transmission medium,
hardware, software, etc.
• Performance is often evaluated by two metrics: throughput and delay.
• It is desirable to have more throughput and less delay.

Reliability:
• Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to
recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security:
• Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.
Connection Types
Point-to-Point
• A point-to-point connection provides a
dedicated link between two devices.
• The entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between
those two devices.
• Most point-to-point connections use
cable but microwave or satellite links
are also possible.
• For example a point-to-point
connection exists between the remote
control and the television's control
system.
Connection Types
Multipoint
• A multipoint connection is
one in which more than two
devices share a single link.
• In a multipoint
environment, the capacity
of the channel is shared.
• If several devices can use
the link simultaneously, it is
a spatially shared
connection.
• If users take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.
Serial and Parallel transmission
Parallel and Serial Data
• Parallel transmission (e.g. 8 bits)
• Each bit uses a separate wire
• To transfer data on a parallel link, a separate line is used as a clock signal. This
serves to inform the receiver when data is available. In addition, another line
may be used by the receiver to inform the sender that the data has been used,
and its ready for the next data.
Parallel and
• Serial (e.g. 8 bits)
Serial Data
• Each bit is sent over a single wire, one after the other
• Usually no signal lines are used to convey clock (timing information)
• There are two types of serial transmission, essentially having to do with how the clock is
embedded into the serial data
• Asynchronous serial transmission
• Synchronous serial transmission
• If no clock information was sent, the receiver would misinterpret the arriving data
(due to bits being lost, going too slow).
• Parallel transmission is obviously faster, in that all bits are sent at the same time,
whereas serial transmission is slower, because only one bit can be sent at a time.
Parallel transmission is very costly for anything except short links.
Asynchronous Serial Transmission
(RS232 Example)
• Because no signal lines are used to convey clock (timing) information, this method groups data
together into a sequence of bits (five to eight), then prefixes them with a start bit and a stop bit.
This is the method most widely used for PC or simple terminal serial communications.
• In asynchronous serial communication, the electrical interface is held in the mark position between
characters. The start of transmission of a character is signaled by a drop in signal level to the space
level. At this point, the receiver starts its clock. After one bit time (the start bit) come 8 bits of true
data followed by one or more stop bits at the mark level.
• The receiver tries to sample the signal in the middle of each bit time. The byte will be read correctly
if the line is still in the intended state when the last stop bit is read.
• Thus the transmitter and receiver only have to have approximately the same clock rate. A little
arithmetic will show that for a 10 bit sequence, the last bit will be interpreted correctly even if the
sender and receiver clocks differ by as much as 5%.
• It is relatively simple, and therefore inexpensive. However, it has a high overhead, in that each
byte carries at least two extra bits: a 20% loss of line bandwidth.
Synchronous Serial Transmission (PS2
Example)
• The PS/2 mouse and keyboard implement a bidirectional synchronous serial protocol.
• The bus is "idle" when both lines are high (open-collector). This is the only state where the
keyboard/mouse is allowed begin transmitting data. The host has ultimate control over the
bus and may inhibit communication at any time by pulling the Clock line low.
• The device (slave) always generates the clock signal. If the host wants to send data, it must
first inhibit communication from the device by pulling Clock low. The host then pulls Data low
and releases Clock. This is the "Request-to-Send" state and signals the device to start
generating clock pulses.
• Summary: Bus States Data is transmited 1 byte at a time:
Data = high, Clock = high: Idle state. •1 start bit. This is always 0.
Data = high, Clock = low: Communication Inhibited.
Data = low, Clock = high: Host Request-to-Send •8 data bits, least significant bit first.
•1 parity bit (odd parity - The number of 1's in
the data bits plus the parity bit always add up
to an odd number. This is used for error
detection.).
•1 stop bit. This is always 1.
•1 acknowledge bit (host-to-device
communication only)
Serial Communication
Name Sync Type Duplex Max Max Max Pin
/Async devices speed distance count
(not including ground)
(Kbps) (feet)

RS-232 async peer full 2 115.2 30 2 (or 4 with HW handshake)

RS-422 async multi-drop half 10 10000 4,000 1 (unidirectional only,

additional pins for each
bidirectional comm.)

RS-485 async multi-point half 32 10000 4,000 2

Limitation based
I2C sync multi- half on bus 3400 <10 2
capacitance and
master bit rate

Limitation based
SPI sync multi- full on bus >1000 <10 3+1(Additional pins needed
capacitance and for every slave if slave count is
master bit rate more than one)
Limitation based
Microwire sync master/slav full on bus >625 <10 3+1(Additional pins needed
capacitance and for every slave if slave count is
e bit rate more than one)
Limitation based
1-Wire async master/slav half on bus 16 1,000 1
capacitance and
e bit rate
Layered Architecture
ISO/OSI Model
• The International Standards Organization (ISO) Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) is a
standard set of rules describing the transfer of data between each layer in a network
operating system. Each layer has a specific function (i.e. the physical layer deals with
the electrical and cable specifications)
• The OSI Model clearly defines the interfaces between each layer. This allows
different network operating systems and protocols to work together by having each
manufacturer adhere to the standard interfaces. The application of the ISO OSI
model has allowed the modern networks that exist today. There are seven layers in
the OSI model.
OSI Model
• The Physical Layer
• Establishes the physical characteristics of the network (e.g., the type of cable,
connectors, length of cable, etc.)
• Defines the electrical characteristics of the signals used to transmit the data
(e.g. signal voltage swing, duration of voltages, etc.)
• Transmits the binary data (bits) as electrical or optical signals depending on the
medium.
• The Data Link Layer
• Defines how the signal will be placed on or taken off the NIC. The data frames
are broken down into individual bits that can be translated into electric signals
and sent over the network. On the receiving side, the bits are reassembled into
frames for processing by upper levels.
• Error detection and correction is also performed at the data link layer. If an
acknowledgement is expected and not received, the frame will be resent.
Corrupt data is also identified at the data link layer.
• Because the Data-Link Layer is very complex, it is sometimes divided into
sublayers (as defined by the IEEE 802 model). The lower sublayer provides
network access. The upper sublayer is concerned with sending and receiving
packets and error checking.
OSI Model
• The Network Layer
• Primarily concerned with addressing and routing. Logical addresses (e.g., an IP address) are
translated into physical addresses (i.e., the MAC address) for transmission at the network
layer. On the receiving side, the translation process is reversed.
• It is at the network layer where the route from the source to destination computer is
determined. Routes are determined based on packet addresses and network conditions.
Traffic control measures are also implemented at the network layer.
• The Transport Layer
• On the sending side, messages are packaged for efficient transmission and assigned a
tracking number so they can be reassembled in proper order. On the receiving side, the
packets are reassembled, checked for errors and acknowledged.
• Performs error handling in that it ensures all data is received in the proper sequence and
without errors. If there are errors, the data is retransmitted.
OSI• Model
The Session Layer
• Is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating a connection called a
'session'.
• A session is an exchange of messages between computers (a dialog). Managing the
session involves synchronization of user tasks and dialog control (e.g., who transmits and
for how long). Synchronization involves the use of checkpoints in the data stream. In
the event of a failure, only the data from the last checkpoint has to be resent.
• Logon, name recognition and security functions take place at the Session Layer.
• The Presentation Layer
• It is responsible for data translation (formatting), compression, and encryption.
• The Presentation Layer is primarily concerned with translation; interpreting and
converting the data from various formats. For example, EBCIDIC characters might be
converted into ASCII. It is also where data is compressed for transmission and
uncompressed on receipt. Encryption techniques are implemented at the Presentation
Layer.
• The redirector operates at the presentation layer by redirecting I/O operations across the
network.
• The Application Layer
• Provides the operating system with direct access to network services.
• It serves as the interface between the user and the network by providing services that
directly support user applications.
OSI Model
OSI Model

• Each layer may add a Header and a Trailer to its Data (which consists of the next
higher layer's Header, Trailer and Data as it moves through the layers). The Headers
contain information that specifically addresses layer-to-layer communication. For
example, the Transport Header (TH) contains information that only the Transport
layer sees. All other layers below the Transport layer pass the Transport Header as
part of their Data.
OSI vs. TCP/IP
Activity
• Do research and report whether layered architecture is require? Or
no more reqireded?
• If require give 5 strong points to justify
• If not give 5 strong points to justify
Switching
CATEGORIES
CATEGORIES
• A one-to-one communication between devices in a large
network is infeasible using topologies such as star, mesh, etc.
• A better solution is switching. A switched network consists of a
series of interlinked nodes, called switches.
• Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections
between two or more devices linked to the switch.
• In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to
the end systems and others for routing.
• Of these message-switching has been phased out in general
communications but is still used in some applications like
electronic mail.
• In message switching, each switch stores the whole message
and forwards it to the next switch.
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
• A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links.
• A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
• However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link.
• Each link is normally divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM.
• The end systems such as computers or telephones are directly connected to a
switch.
• When end system A needs to communicate with end system M, system A needs to
request a connection to M that must be accepted by all switches as well as by M
itself.
• This is called the setup phase; a circuit (channel) is reserved on each link, and the
combination of circuits or channels defines the dedicated path.
• Once the dedicated path is established, data transfer takes place. After all data
have been transferred, the circuit is teardown.
 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
Setup Phase
• Before the two parties (or multiple • For example as shown in figure, when
parties in a conference call) can system A needs to connect to system M, it
communicate, a dedicated circuit sends a setup request that includes the
(combination of channels in links) address of system M, to switch I.
needs to be established. • Switch I finds a channel between itself
• The end systems are normally and switch IV that can be dedicated for
connected through dedicated lines to this purpose.
the switches, so connection setup
• Switch I then sends the request to switch
means creating dedicated channels
IV, which finds a dedicated channel
between the switches.
between itself and switch III.
• The resources, such as channels • Switch III informs system M of system A's
(bandwidth in FDM and time slots in intention at this time.
TDM), switch buffers, switch
processing time, and switch I/O • In the next step to making a connection,
ports, must be reserved until the an acknowledgment from system M needs
teardown phase. to be sent in the opposite direction to
system A.
.
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
•Only after system A receives this
Data Transfer Phase
acknowledgment is the connection
established.
•An end-to-end addressing is required for •After the establishment of the dedicated
creating a connection between the two end circuit (channels), the two parties can
systems. It could be addresses of the transfer data.
computers in a TDM network, or telephone •There is no addressing involved during
numbers in an FDM network data transfer. The switches route the data
Teardown Phase based on their occupied band (FDM) or
time slot (TDM).
•When one of the parties needs to •Data transferred between the two
disconnect, a signal is sent to each switch to stations is a continuous flow of signal,
release the resources. may be with periods of silence.
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
Efficiency
• The circuit-switched networks are not as efficient as the other two types of networks because resources are allocated
during the entire duration of the connection.
• These resources are unavailable to other connections.
• In a telephone network, people normally terminate the communication when they have finished their conversation.
• However, in computer networks, a computer can be connected to another computer even if there is no activity for a long
time
Delay
• Although a circuit-switched network normally has low efficiency, the delay in this type of
• network is minimal. During data transfer the data are not delayed at each switch since the
• resources are allocated for the duration of the connection. The total delay is due to the time
• needed to create the connection, transfer data, and disconnect the circuit.
• The delay caused by the setup is the sum of four parts: the propagation time of the source
• computer request, the request signal transfer time, the propagation time of the
• acknowledgment from the destination computer, and the signal transfer time of the
• acknowledgment. The delay due to data transfer is the sum of two parts: the propagation time and data transfer time. The
third one is the time needed to tear down the circuit. If the
• receiver requests disconnection, then it causes the maximum delay.
PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK
 PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK
DATAGRAM NETWORKS DATAGRAM NETWORKS
• In a packet-switched network, the message is
divided into packets of fixed or variable size. • In the above figure, all four packets (or datagram's)
belong to the same message, but may travel
• The size of the packet is determined by the different paths to reach their destination.
network and the governing protocol.
• In packet switching, there is no resource allocation• This approach can cause the datagram's of a
for a packet. transmission to arrive at their destination out of
order with different delays between the packets.
• Therefore, there is no reserved bandwidth on the
links, and no scheduled processing time. • Packets may also be lost or dropped because of a
lack of resources.
• Resources are allocated on demand.
• The allocation is done on a first-come, first-served • In most protocols, it is the responsibility of an
basis. upper-layer protocol to reorder the datagram's or
ask for lost datagram's before passing them on to
• When a switch receives a the application
• packet, no matter what is the source or • The datagram networks are referred to as
destination, the packet must wait if there are other
packets being processed. The lack of reservation connectionless networks.
creates delay. • The term connectionless means that the switch
• In a datagram network, each packet is treated does not keep information about the connection
independently of all others regardless of its state.
• source or destination. Datagram switching is • There are no setup or teardown phases. Each
normally done at the network layer. packet is treated the same by a switch.
PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK DATAGRAM
NETWORKS
PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK DATAGRAM
NETWORKS
Routing Table

• In datagram network, packets are routed to their destinations by

means of a routing table.
• Each switch (or packet switch) has a routing table which is based on
the destination address.
• The routing tables are dynamic and are updated periodically.
• The destination addresses and the corresponding forwarding output
ports are recorded in the tables as shown in the figure.
• Every packet in a datagram network carries a header that contains,
among other information, the destination address of the packet that
remains the same in its journey.
• When the switch receives the packet, destination address is examined
and the routing table is consulted to find the corresponding port
through which the packet should be forwarded.
PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK DATAGRAM
NETWORKS
PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK DATAGRAM
NETWORKS
Efficiency
• The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a circuit-switched
network; resources are allocated only when there are packets to be transferred.
• The resources can be reallocated if it's idle, for other packets
Delay
• Each packet may experience a wait at a switch before it is forwarded.
In addition, since not all packets in a message necessarily travel
through the same switches, the delay is not uniform for the packets of
a message.
• In the above figure, the packet travels through two switches.
• There are three transmission times (3T), three propagation delays (3t),
and two waiting times (W1 + W2).
• The total delay is 3T + 3t + W1 + W2
PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK VIRTUAL-
CIRCUIT NETWORKS
A virtual-circuit network is a hybrid of a circuit-switched and datagram network. Some
of its characteristics are:
1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in
addition to the data transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched
network, or on demand, as in a datagram network.
3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an address
in the header. However, the address in the header defines what should be the next
switch and the channel on which the packet is being carried, not end-to-end.
4. As in circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established
during the connection.
5. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer.
PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK VIRTUAL-
CIRCUIT NETWORKS
• The network has switches that allow traffic
from sources to destinations.
• A source or destination can be a computer,
packet switch, bridge, or any other device
that connects other networks
Comparison
• ???
 Network
Categories
Local Area Network
• A LAN is privately owned and links the devices
in a single office, building, or campus.

• Depending on the needs of an organization

and the type of technology used, a LAN can be
simple or extend throughout a company.

• Currently, LAN size is limited to a few

kilometers.

• LANs are designed to allow resources to be

shared between personal computers or
workstations.

• Nowadays, the speed of LAN is in the range

100–1000 Mbp
Wide Area Network
• A wide area network (WAN) provides long-
distance transmission of data, image, audio,
and video information over large geographic
areas that may comprise a country, a
continent, or even the whole world.
• A WAN can be either switched or point-to-
point.
• The switched WAN connects the end systems,
comprising a router that connects to another
LAN or WAN.
• The point-to-point WAN is a line leased from a
telephone/cable TV provider that connects a
home computer or a small LAN to an Internet
service provider (lSP) to provide Internet
access.
• A good example of a switched WAN is the
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network.
Metropolitan Area Networks
• A MAN is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It
normally covers the area
• inside a town or a city. It is designed for customers who need
a high-speed connectivity to the
• Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of
city. A good example of a MAN is
• part of the telephone network providing a high-speed DSL
line to the customer.
• Internetwork—Nowadays rarely a MAN or LAN exists in
isolation; they are connected to one
• another. When two or more networks are connected, it
becomes an internetwork, or internet.
Network topologies
MESH TOPOLOGY

• Each device has a dedicated point-

to-point link to every other device.
• The term dedicated means that
the link carries traffic only
between the two devices it
connects.
• A mesh network with n nodes has
n(n-1) links [ n(n-1) / 2 in case of
duplex ].
MESH TOPOLOGY
The advantages of mesh over other network topologies are:
• The use of dedicated links eliminates traffic problems that occur when link is
shared.
• A mesh topology is robust.
• If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system.
• Privacy or security is maintained.
MESH TOPOLOGY
The main disadvantages of a mesh are:
• Installation and reconnection are difficult.
• The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space.
• The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports & cable) is expensive.
Due to its major disadvantages, mesh topology is usually
implemented in a limited fashion.
An example of a mesh topology
• It is the connection of telephone regional offices in which each regional office
needs to be connected to every other regional office.
STAR TOPOLOGY
• Each device has a dedicated
point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called
a hub.
• The devices are not directly
linked to one another.
• Unlike mesh, a star topology
does not allow direct traffic
between devices.
• The controller acts as an
exchange.
• If one device wants to send
data to another, it sends the
data to the controller, which
then relays the data to the
other connected device.
• It is used in LANs.
STAR TOPOLOGY
The advantages :

• A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.

• In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
• This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure.
• Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one connection:
between that device and the hub.
• Star topology is also robust i.e., when one link fails, only that link is affected.
• All other links remain active.
• As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.

Disadvantage :
• star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub.
• If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
BUS TOPOLOGY
• Unlike mesh or ring, it is multipoint.
• One long cable acts as a backbone to link all
the devices in a network.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by
drop lines and taps.
• A drop line is a connection running between
the device and the main cable.
• A tap is a connector that either splices into
the main cable to create a contact with the
metallic core.
• As signal travels along the backbone, some
of its energy is transformed into heat.
• Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as
it travels farther and farther.
• For this reason there is a limit on the
number of taps a bus can support and
distance between the taps.
BUS TOPOLOGY
Advantages of a bus topology include:

• Ease of installation.
• Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop
lines.
• In this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

Disadvantages are:

• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.

• Adding new devices require modification or replacement of the backbone.
• Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
• In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.
RING TOPOLOGY
RING TOPOLOGY
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the
two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination.
• When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its
repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along
RING TOPOLOGY
The advantages are:
• Easy to install and reconfigure.
• Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors.
• To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
• Fault isolation is simplified by making a device to issue an alarm if it does
not receive a signal within a specified period.
Disadvantages are:
• A break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire
network due to unidirectional traffic.
• Ring topology is less popular now.
IEEE standards for LAN

• IEEE 802
• IEEE 802 is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and
metropolitan area networks.
• The services and protocols specified in IEEE 802 map to the lower two
layers (Data Link and Physical) of the seven-layer OSI networking reference
model. In fact, IEEE 802 splits the OSI Data Link Layer into two sub-layers
named logical link control (LLC) and media access control (MAC), so the
layers can be listed like this:
• Data link layer
• LLC sublayer
• MAC sublayer
• Physical layer
 Higher Layer LAN Protocols
IEEE 802.1 active
(Bridging)
IEEE 802.2 LLC disbanded
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet active
IEEE 802.4 Token bus disbanded
IEEE 802.5 Token ring MAC layer disbanded
IEEE 802.6 MANs (DQDB) disbanded
IEEE 802.7 Broadband LAN using Coaxial Cable disbanded
IEEE 802.8 Fiber Optic TAG disbanded
Integrated Services LAN (ISLAN or
IEEE 802.9 disbanded
isoEthernet)
IEEE 802.10 Interoperable LAN Security disbanded
Wireless LAN (WLAN) & Mesh (Wi-
IEEE 802.11 active
Fi certification)
EEE 802.12 100BaseVG disbanded

IEEE 802.13 Unused[2] Reserved for Fast Ethernet development[3]

IEEE 802.14 Cable modems disbanded

IEEE 802.15 Wireless PAN active
IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth certification active

IEEE 802.15.2 IEEE 802.15 and IEEE 802.11 coexistence Hibernating [4]

IEEE 802.15.3 High-Rate wireless PAN (e.g., UWB, etc.)

IEEE 802.15.4 Low-Rate wireless PAN (e.g., ZigBee, WirelessHART, MiWi, etc.) active

IEEE 802.15.5 Mesh networking for WPAN

IEEE 802.15.6 Body area network active
IEEE 802.15.7 Visible light communications

IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access (WiMAX certification) hibernating

IEEE 802.16.1 Local Multipoint Distribution Service

IEEE 802.16.2 Coexistence wireless access

IEEE 802.17 Resilient packet ring hibernating
IEEE 802.18 Radio Regulatory TAG
IEEE 802.19 Coexistence TAG
IEEE 802.20 Mobile Broadband Wireless Access hibernating
IEEE 802.21 Media Independent Handoff
IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Network
IEEE 802.23 Emergency Services Working Group
IEEE 802.24 Smart Grid TAG New (November, 2012)
IEEE 802.25 Omni-Range Area Network
Ethernet
• Ethernet is a popular, relatively inexpensive, easy-to-install LAN architecture with
the following characteristics:
• Uses the CSMA/CD media access control.
• Data transmission normally occurs at 100 Mbps (10Mbps in the early forms and 10Gbps
in the most recent forms).
• Typically implemented in a star topology (early versions used bus topology as well).
• Ethernet LANs are normally distinguished by the type of cable they use Twisted Pair
(Thinnet or Thicknet were also used in the past).
• The Ethernet architecture conforms to most but not all of the IEEE 802.3
specification (the physical layers are identical but the MAC layers are somewhat
different).
• An Ethernet LAN is often described in terms of three parameters: transmission rate,
transmission type, and segment distance or cable type.
• "100baseT" means:
• 100 - transmission rate or through put of 100Mbps
• base - transmission type is baseband rather than broadband network (i.e., the signal is placed
directly on the cable, one signal at a time)
• T – the cable type (e.g. Twisted pair)
• Few types of Ethernet: 10Base2, 10Base5, 10BaseT and 10BaseF, 100BaseT,
100BaseF, etc..
Token Ring
• Token ring is a relatively expensive LAN architecture that was strongly influenced
by IBM. It is very stable and can be expanded without a significant degradation in
network performance.
• Token ring uses the token passing media access control. Data transmission
normally occurs at 4 or 16 Mbps depending on the cable.
• Token ring is normally implemented in a logical ring/physical star topology with a
MAU (Multistation Access Unit) as the hub. The maximum number of stations on
one ring is 260 for shielded twisted pair and 72 for unshielded twisted pair (UTP).
There can be up to 33 MAUs per ring.
• Token Ring LANs normally use shielded twisted pair (STP) but may also use
unshielded twisted pair (UTP) or fiber-optic cable. The maximum distance to the
MAU from the workstation depends on the cable and varies from 45 meters for
UTP to 100 meters for STP.
• The Token Ring architecture conforms generally to the IEEE’s 802.5 specification
Ethernet vs. Token Ring
• Ethernet is generally less expensive and easier to install than
Token Ring.
• Token Ring is generally more secure and more stable than
Ethernet, but not used anymore in typical LAN
configurations.
• It is usually more difficult to add more computers on a
Token Ring LAN than it is to an Ethernet LAN. However, as
additional computers are added, performance degradation
will be less pronounced on the Token Ring LAN than it will
be on the Ethernet LAN.
• Ethernet uses CSMA/CD media access control and Token
Ring uses token passing. This makes Ethernet better suited
in a situation where there are a large number of computers
sending fewer, larger data frames. Token Ring is better
suited for small to medium size LANs sending many, smaller
data frames.
Ethernet

Outline
Multiple Access and Ethernet Intro
Ethernet Framing
CSMA/CD protocol
Exponential backoff
Shared Access Networks are Different
• Shared Access Networks assume multiple nodes on the
same physical link
• Bus, ring and wireless structures
• Transmission sent by one node is received by all others
• No intermediate switches
• Need methods for moderating access (MAC protocols)
• Fairness
• Performance
• How can this be done?

CS 640 72
Multiple Access Methods
• Fixed assignment
• Partition channel so each node gets a slice of the bandwidth
• Essentially circuit switching – thus inefficient
• Examples: TDMA, FDMA, CDMA (all used in wireless/cellular
environments)
• Contention-based
• Nodes contends equally for bandwidth and recover from collisions
• Examples: Aloha, Ethernet
• Token-based or reservation-based
• Take turns using the channel
• Examples: Token ring

CS 640 73
A Quick Word about Token Ring
• Developed by IBM in early 80’s as a new LAN
architecture
• Consists of nodes connected into a ring (typically via
concentrators)
• Special message called a token is passed around the ring
• When nodes gets the token it can transmit for a limited time
• Every node gets an equal opportunity to send
• IEEE 802.5 standard for Token Ring
• Designed for predictability, fairness and reliability
• Originally designed to run at either 4Mbps and 16Mbps
• Still used and sold but beaten out by Ethernet

CS 640 74
 Our Focus is Ethernet
• History
• Developed by Bob Metcalfe and others at Xerox PARC in mid-1970s
• Roots in Aloha packet-radio network
• Standardized by Xerox, DEC, and Intel in 1978
• LAN standards define MAC and physical layer connectivity
• IEEE 802.3 (CSMA/CD - Ethernet) standard – originally 2Mbps
• IEEE 802.3u standard for 100Mbps Ethernet
• IEEE 802.3z standard for 1,000Mbps Ethernet
• CSMA/CD: Ethernet’s Media Access Control (MAC) policy
• CS = carrier sense
• Send only if medium is idle
• MA = multiple access
• CD = collision detection
• Stop sending immediately if collision is detected

CS 640 75
Ethernet Standard Defines Physical Layer
• 802.3 standard defines both MAC and physical layer details

Metcalfe’s original
Ethernet Sketch

CS 640 76
 Ethernet Technologies: 10Base2
• 10: 10Mbps; 2: under 185 (~200) meters cable length

• Thin coaxial cable in a bus topology

• Repeaters used to connect multiple segments

• Repeater repeats bits it hears on one interface to its other interfaces: physical layer device only!

CS 640 77
10BaseT and 100BaseT
• 10/100 Mbps rate
• T stands for Twisted Pair
• Hub(s) connected by twisted pair facilitate “star topology”
• Distance of any node to hub must be < 100M

CS 640 78
Physical Layer Configurations for 802.3
• Physical layer configurations are specified in three parts
• Data rate (10, 100, 1,000)
• 10, 100, 1,000Mbps
• Signaling method (base, broad)
• Baseband
• Digital signaling
• Broadband
• Analog signaling
• Cabling (2, 5, T, F, S, L)
• 5 - Thick coax (original Ethernet cabling)
• F – Optical fiber
• S – Short wave laser over multimode fiber
• L – Long wave laser over single mode fiber

CS 640 79
 Ethernet Overview
• Most popular packet-switched LAN technology
• Bandwidths: 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps
• Max bus length: 2500m
• 500m segments with 4 repeaters
• Bus and Star topologies are used to connect hosts
• Hosts attach to network via Ethernet transceiver or hub or switch
• Detects line state and sends/receives signals
• Hubs are used to facilitate shared connections
• All hosts on an Ethernet are competing for access to the medium
• Switches break this model
• Problem: Distributed algorithm that provides fair access

CS 640 80
Ethernet Overview (contd.)
• Ethernet by definition is a broadcast protocol
• Any signal can be received by all hosts
• Switching enables individual hosts to communicate
• Network layer packets are transmitted over an
Ethernet by encapsulating
• Frame Format
64 48 48 16 32

Preamble Dest Src Type Body CRC

addr addr

CS 640 81
 Switched Ethernet
• Switches forward and filter frames based on LAN addresses
• It’s not a bus or a router (although simple forwarding tables are maintained)
• Very scalable
• Options for many interfaces
• Full duplex operation (send/receive frames simultaneously)
• Connect two or more “segments” by copying data frames between them
• Switches only copy data when needed
• key difference from repeaters
• Higher link bandwidth
• Collisions are completely avoided
• Much greater aggregate bandwidth
• Separate segments can send at once

CS 640 82
Ethernet Frames
• Preamble is a sequence of 7 bytes, each set to “10101010”
• Used to synchronize receiver before actual data is sent
• Addresses
• unique, 48-bit unicast address assigned to each adapter
• example: 8:0:e4:b1:2
• Each manufacturer gets their own address range
• broadcast: all 1s
• multicast: first bit is 1
• Type field is a demultiplexing key used to determine which higher
level protocol the frame should be delivered to
• Body can contain up to 1500 bytes of data

CS 640 83
 A Quick Word about Aloha Networks
• Developed in late 60’s by Norm Abramson at Univ. of Hawaii (!!)
for use with packet radio systems
• Any station can send data at any time
• Receiver sends an ACK for data
• Timeout for ACK signals that there was a collision
• What happens if timeout is poorly timed?
• If there is a collision, sender will resend data after a random backoff
• Utilization (fraction of transmitted frames avoiding collision for N
nodes) was pretty bad
• Max utilization = 18%
• Slotted Aloha (dividing transmit time into windows) helped
• Max utilization increased to 36%

CS 640 84
 Ethernet’s MAC Algorithm
• In Aloha, decisions to transmit are made without paying attention
to what other nodes might be doing
• Ethernet uses CSMA/CD – listens to line before/during sending
• If line is idle (no carrier sensed)
• send packet immediately
• upper bound message size of 1500 bytes
• must wait 9.6us between back-to-back frames
• If line is busy (carrier sensed)
• wait until idle and transmit packet immediately
• called 1-persistent sending
• If collision detected
• Stop sending and jam signal
• Try again later

CS 640 85
State Diagram for CSMA/CD

Packet?
No

Sense Send Detect

Carrier Collision

Yes
Discard
Packet Jam channel
attempts < 16 b=CalcBackoff();
wait(b);
attempts++;
attempts == 16

CS 640 86
 Collisions
Collisions are caused when two adaptors transmit at the same
time (adaptors sense collision based on voltage differences)
• Both found line to be idle
• Both had been waiting to for a busy line to become idle

A starts at A B
time 0
Message almost
A B
there at time T when
B starts – collision!

How can we be sure A knows about the collision?

CS 640 87
Collision Detection
• How can A know that a collision has taken place?
• There must be a mechanism to insure retransmission on collision
• A’s message reaches B at time T
• B’s message reaches A at time 2T
• So, A must still be transmitting at 2T
• IEEE 802.3 specifies max value of 2T to be 51.2us
• This relates to maximum distance of 2500m between hosts
• At 10Mbps it takes 0.1us to transmit one bit so 512 bits (64B) take 51.2us to send
• So, Ethernet frames must be at least 64B long
• 14B header, 46B data, 4B CRC
• Padding is used if data is less than 46B
• Send jamming signal after collision is detected to insure all hosts see collision
• 48 bit signal

CS 640 88
Collision Detection contd.
A B
time = 0

A B
time = T

A B
time = 2T

CS 640 89
 Exponential Backoff
• If a collision is detected, delay and try again
• Delay time is selected using binary exponential backoff
• 1st time: choose K from {0,1} then delay = K * 51.2us
• 2nd time: choose K from {0,1,2,3} then delay = K * 51.2us
• nth time: delay = K x 51.2us, for K=0..2n – 1
• Note max value for k = 1023
• give up after several tries (usually 16)
• Report transmit error to host
• If delay were not random, then there is a chance that sources
would retransmit in lock step
• Why not just choose from small set for K
• This works fine for a small number of hosts
• Large number of nodes would result in more collisions

CS 640 90
 MAC Algorithm from the Receiver Side
• Senders handle all access control
• Receivers simply read frames with acceptable address
• Address to host
• Address to broadcast
• Address to multicast to which host belongs
• All frames if host is in promiscuous mode

CS 640 91
Fast and Gigabit Ethernet
• Fast Ethernet (100Mbps) has technology very similar to 10Mbps Ethernet
• Uses different physical layer encoding (4B5B)
• Many NIC’s are 10/100 capable
• Can be used at either speed
• Gigabit Ethernet (1,000Mbps)
• Compatible with lower speeds
• Uses standard framing and CSMA/CD algorithm
• Distances are severely limited
• Typically used for backbones and inter-router connectivity
• Becoming cost competitive
• How much of this bandwidth is realizable?

CS 640 92
Experiences with Ethernet
• Ethernets work best under light loads
• Utilization over 30% is considered heavy
• Network capacity is wasted by collisions
• Most networks are limited to about 200 hosts
• Specification allows for up to 1024
• Most networks are much shorter
• 5 to 10 microsecond RTT
• Transport level flow control helps reduce load (number of
back to back packets)
• Ethernet is inexpensive, fast and easy to administer!

CS 640 93
Ethernet Problems

• Ethernet’s peak utilization is pretty low (like Aloha)

• Peak throughput worst with
• More hosts
• More collisions needed to identify single sender
• Smaller packet sizes
• More frequent arbitration
• Longer links
• Collisions take longer to observe, more wasted bandwidth
• Efficiency is improved by avoiding these conditions

CS 640 94
Why did Ethernet Win?
• There are LOTS of LAN protocols
• Price
• Performance
• Availability
• Ease of use
• Scalability

CS 640 95
Token Bus
Token Ring
and
FDDI

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

97
Networks: Token Ring and FDDI
98
IEEE 802.5 and Token Ring
• Proposed in 1969 and initially referred to as a
Newhall ring.
Token ring :: a number of stations connected by
transmission links in a ring topology. Information
flows in one direction along the ring from source
to destination and back to source.
Medium access control is provided by a small frame,
the token, that circulates around the ring when all
stations are idle. Only the station possessing the
token is allowed to transmit at any given time.
Networks: Token Ring and FDDI
99
Token Ring Operation
• When a station wishes to transmit, it must wait for
token to pass by and seize the token.
• One approach: change one bit in token which transforms
it into a “start-of-frame sequence” and appends frame for
transmission.
• Second approach: station claims token by removing it
from the ring.
• Frame circles the ring and is removed by the
transmitting station.
• Each station interrogates passing frame, if destined
for station, it copies the frame into local buffer.
{Normally, there is a one bit delay as the frame
passes through a station.}

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

100
 Token Ring Network
with star topology

Wiring center

D
C

Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Figure 6.58

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

101
Re-inserting token on the ring
Choices:
1. After station has completed transmission of the frame.
2. After leading edge of transmitted frame has returned to the
sending station
The essential issue is whether more than one frame is allowed on the
ring at the same time.

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

102
 (a) Low Latency Ring
A A A A

t=0, A begins frame t=90, return t=400, transmit t=490, reinsert

of first bit last bit token
(b) High Latency Ring
A A A A

t=0, A begins frame t=400, last bit of t=840, return of first t=1240, reinsert
frame enters ring bit token
Networks: Token Ring and FDDI
103
Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Figure 6.59
 (a) Low Latency Ring
A A A A

t=0, A begins frame t=90, return t=210, return of t=400, last bit enters
of first bit header ring, reinsert token
(b) High Latency Ring
A A A A

t=0, A begins frame t=400, transmit t=840, arrival t=960, reinsert

last bit first frame bit token
Networks: Token Ring and FDDI
104
Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Figure 6.60
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring
• 4 and 16 Mbps using twisted-pair cabling with
differential Manchester line encoding.
• Maximum number of stations is 250.
• Waits for last byte of frame to arrive before reinserting
token on ring {new token after received}.
• 8 priority levels provided via two 3-bit fields (priority
and reservation) in data and token frames.
• Permits 16-bit and 48-bit addresses (same as 802.3).

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

105
Networks: Token Ring and FDDI
106
Token Ring
• Under light load – delay is added due to waiting for the token.
• Under heavy load – ring is “round-robin”
• The ring must be long enough to hold the complete token.
• Advantages – fair access
• Disadvantages – ring is single point of failure, added issues due to
token maintenance.

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

107
Token Maintenance Issues
What can go wrong?
• Loss of token (no token circulating)
• Duplication of token (forgeries or mistakes)
The need to designate one station as the active
ring monitor.
• Persistently circulating frame
• Deal with active monitor going down.

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

108
 IEEE 802.5 Token and data frame structure

Token Frame Format SD AC ED

Data Frame Format
1 1 1 2 or 6 2 or 6 4 1 1
Destination Source
SD AC FC Information FCS ED FS
Address Address
Starting
J K 0 J K 0 0 0 J, K non-data symbols (line code)
delimiter

Access PPP Priority; T Token bit

control PPP T M RRR M Monitor bit; RRR Reservation

Frame FF frame type

FF Z Z Z Z Z Z ZZZZZZ control bit
control
Ending I intermediate-frame bit
J K 1 J K 1 I E E error-detection bit
delimiter
A address-recognized bit
Frame xx undefined
A C xx A C x x
status C frame-copied bit
Networks: Token Ring and FDDI
109
Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Figure 6.61
 Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI)
• FDDI uses a ring topology of multimode or single mode optical fiber
transmission links operating at 100 Mbps to span up to 200 kms and
permits up to 500 stations.
• Employs dual counter-rotating rings.
• 16 and 48-bit addresses are allowed.
• In FDDI, token is absorbed by station and released as soon as it
completes the frame transmission {release after transmission}.

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

110
 FDDI Token Ring

E
B

C D
Networks: Token Ring and FDDI
111
Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Figure 6.62
 FDDI Repair

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

112
FDDI Ring
Operation

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

113
FDDI
• To accommodate a mixture of stream and bursty
traffic, FDDI is designed to handle two types of
traffic:
• Synchronous frames that typically have tighter delay
requirements (e.g., voice and video)
• Asynchronous frames have greater delay tolerances
(e.g., data traffic)

• FDDI uses TTRT (Target Token Rotation Time) to

ensure that token rotation time is less than some
value.

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

114
FDDI Data Encoding
• Cannot use differential Manchester because 100
Mbps FDDI would require 200 Mbaud!
• Instead each ring interface has its own local clock.
• Outgoing data is transmitted using this clock.
• Incoming data is received using a clock that is frequency
and phase locked to the transitions in the incoming bit
stream.

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

115
FDDI Data Encoding
• Data is encoded using a 4B/5B encoder.
• For each four bits of data transmitted, a corresponding 5-
bit codeword is generated by the encoder.
• There is a maximum of two consecutive zero bits in each
symbol.
• The symbols are then shifted out through a NRZI
encoder which produces a signal transition
whenever a 1 bit is being transmitted and no
transition when a 0 bit is transmitted  guarantees
a signal transition at least every two bits.
• Local clock is 125MHz. This yields 100 Mbps (80%
due to 4B/5B).

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

116
 FDDI

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

117
Networks: Token Ring and FDDI
118
 FDDI frame structure

Token Frame Format PRE SD FC ED

Data Frame Format

8 1 1 2 or 6 2 or 6 4 1 1
Destination Source
PRE SD FC Information FCS ED FS
Address Address
Preamble

Frame CLFFZZZZ C = Synch/Asynch

Control L = Address length (16 or 48 bits)
FF = LLC/MAC control/reserved frame type

Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks

Figure 6.63

Networks: Token Ring and FDDI

119
 More FDDI Details
• Transmission on optical fiber requires ASK
• The simplest case: coding is done via the absence or
presence of a carrier signal {Intensity Modulation}
• Specific 5-bit codeword patterns chosen to guarantee
no more than three zeroes in a row to provide for
adequate synchronization.
• 1300 nm wavelength specified
• Dual rings (primary and secondary) –transmit in
opposite directions
• Normally, second ring is idle and used for redundancy
for automatic repair (self-healing).
Networks: Token Ring and FDDI
120
 Differences between 802.5 and FDDI
Token Ring FDDI
• Shielded twisted pair • Optical Fiber
• 4, 16 Mbps • 100 Mbps
• No reliability specified • Reliability specified (dual
• Differential Manchester ring)
• Centralized clock • 4B/5B encoding
• Priority and Reservation • Distributed clocking
bits
• Timed Token Rotation Time
• New token after receive
• New token after transmit
Networks: Token Ring and FDDI
121