Objective
When we have completed this chapter,
you will be able to:
Identify and explain job code specifications
Use fit-up gauges and measuring devices
Identify and explain distortion
Fit up joints using plate and pipe fit-up tools
Check for joint alignment
1.0.0 Introduction
Joint design and setup affect the safety
and quality of completed weldment.
Because joint design and setup are so
important, they are covered by written
codes and specifications that must be
followed.
Special tools to measure and aid fit-up
are also available.
2.0.0 Job Code Specifications
Whenever a bridge, building, ship or
pressure vessel is welded, the
manufacturer and the buyer must reach
agreement on how each weld will be made.
To eliminate the need to write a new code
for each job, government agencies,
societies, and associations have developed
codes.
These codes are used universally to
ensure safety and quality when welds are
made.
2.1.0 Governing Codes and
Standards
A welding code or standard is a detailed
listing of the rules and principles that
apply to specific welded products.
Codes ensure that safe and reliable
welded products will be produced and
that persons associated with the welding
operation will be safe.
2.1.0 Governing Codes and
Standards
In addition, when codes are specified, the
use of these codes is mandated with the
force of law by one or more government
jurisdictions.
Here are some of the more common codes
and standards:
API 1104-Standards for Welding of Pipeline and
Related Facilities- used for pipelines
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code –
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASME B31.1, Power Piping – used for pressure
piping
AWS D1.1 – Structural Welding Code – Steel
2.2.0 Code Changes
Codes are periodically reviewed and
updated.
Addendum sheets (new pages) for the
areas of the code affected by the
changes are issued.
The ASME issues yearly addendums.
The yearly addendum is identified by
placing the letter A in front of the year on
the cover of the code.
2.3.0 Welding Procedure
Specifications (WPS)
A welding procedure specification is a
written set of instructions for producing
sound welds.
Each WPS is written and tested in
accordance with a particular welding code
or specification and must be in accordance
with industry practice.
If a weld does require a WPS, the WPS
must be followed.
Consequences for not following a required
WPS are unsafe weldment that could
endanger life, rejection of the weldment
and lawsuits.
2.3.0 Welding Procedure
Specifications (WPS)
2.3.0 Welding Procedure
Specifications (WPS)
The requirement for the use of a WPS is
often listed on job blueprints as a note or in
the tail of the welding symbols.
It is the responsibility of each manufacturer
or contractor to test and qualify the WPS
before using it.
The WPS is tested by welding test
coupons.
Then, the coupons are tested according to
the code.
2.3.0 Welding Procedure
Specifications (WPS)
The testing includes nondestructive
testing (NDT), tensile strength tests, and
root, face, or side bends tests.
The results of the testing are recorded
on a procedure qualification record
(PQR).
The WPS and PQR must be kept on file.
2.3.0 Welding Procedure
Specifications (WPS)
Information typically found on a WPS
includes:
Base metal-the chemical composition of the
base metal using the standard identification.
○ Example – A36 – carbon steel
Welding process
Filler Metal
Type of Current
Arc voltage and travel speed
Joint design
Joint preparation
Positions of welding
3.0.0 Fit-Up Gauges and
Measuring Devices
Before making a weld, the joint must be
fit up and checked to ensure it conforms
to the WPS.
The most common tools used to lay out
and check joint fit-ups are straightedges,
squares, levels and Hi-lo gauges.
3.1.0 Straightedges
Straightedges are used to mark straight
lines and check joint alignment.
Many have calibrations along their
length for measuring.
Straightedges, particularly longer ones,
are typically fabricated on the job from
small channel or angle iron.
3.2.0 Squares
Two types of squares are used for
layout: pipefitter’s square and a
combination square.
Pipefitter’s square is used to measure
angles and check squareness.
Combination squares are smaller with
blades typically 12” or 18” long.
They have replaceable attachments that
slide along the blade.
3.2.0 Squares
3.2.0 Squares
Attachments include a combination 90
degree / 45 degree level head, a centering
head, and a protractor head.
The combination attachment is used to
check and lay out 90 degree and 45
degree angles, to check level, and to
measure depth.
The centering head is used to measure
round stock and to locate the center of
shafts or other round objects.
The protractor is used to lay out and check
angles.
3.3.0 Levels
Levels come in a variety of sizes and
shapes.
Some have magnetized bases.
Levels are used to check that layouts are
level (horizontal) and plumb (vertical).
Levels use a bubble in a glass vial to check
level and plumb.
Centering the bubble between the lines
marked on the vial indicates level or plumb.
Some levels have a 45 degree vial.
3.3.0 Levels
3.4.0 Hi-Lo Gauges
The primary purpose of a Hi-Lo gauge is
to check for pipe joint misalignment.
The name of the gauge comes from the
relationship between the alignment of
one pipe to the other pipe, which is
called high-low.
3.4.0 Hi-Lo Gauges
3.4.1 Internal Misalignment
Checks
To check for internal misalignment, Hi-
Lo gauges have two prongs that are
pulled tightly against the inside diameter
of the joint so that one prong is flush
with each side of the joint.
The variation between the two stops is
read on a scale marked on the gauge.
3.4.1 Internal Misalignment
Checks
Many HI-Lo gauges also have the
capability to check the following:
Pipe wall thickness
Root opening
Weld reinforcement
4.1.0 Positioning Parts of a
Weldment
Hydraulic jacks, chain falls, and come
alongs are used to position parts of a
weldment.
Hydraulic Jacks
○ Never weld directly on the hydraulic jack base
or ram.
○ Monitor the jack for oil leaks.
4.1.2 Chain Hosts
Chain hosts, also called chain falls, are
used to lift or lower weldment parts.
Secure the chain hoist over the
weldment with an approved sling
wrapped around a structural member.
Never hang chain hosts from any item
not designed to carry external loads.
4.1.3 Come-Alongs
Come-alongs can be used for vertical
lifting and pulling at angles.
More than one come-along or chain fall
can be used to precisely position a
weldment.
Before welding, make use the welding
current will not pass through the come-
along.
Chain Hoist & Come-Alongs
4.2.0 Plate Fit-Up Tools
The most common method of holding a
joint in place after it had been fitted up is
to tack-weld it in place.
The most common tools for plate fit-up
are strong-backs, clips, yokes, and
wedges.
4.2.1 Strongbacks
Strongbacks are typically made on the
job site from heavy bar stock.
They are notched at the weld joint to
allow access to the joint so that welds
can be made without interference.
The strongback can be on the face or
root side of the weldment.
When tack-welding strongbacks, place
the tack welds on only one side of the
strongback, so it will be easier to
remove.
4.2.2 Clips, Yokes, and Wedges
Clips, yokes, and wedges can be used
to align joints and then hold them in
place during the welding.
Clips are welded to the edge of one
plate and then wedges are positioned on
the other plate and driven under the
clips to force the joint alignment.
Yokes work in a similar manner.
4.2.4 Plate Alignment Tools
A typical configuration of an alignment
tool consists of a yoke, threaded
adjusting rod, gap plate, and root bar.
The alignment tool is used by straddling
the joint opening with the yoke.
The gap plate can be changed to match
the specified root opening.
15 minute break
4.3.0 Pipe Fit-Up Tools
Pipe jacks and rollers are used to
support pipe for fit-up and welding.
Pipe jacks typically have either a V-head
or roller head and a height adjustment.
Rollers, which can be floor stand or
table models, can be adjusted
horizontally for various pipe diameters.
4.3.1 Pipe Jacks and Rollers
Pipe jacks and rollers are used to
support pipe for fit-up and welding.
Pipe jacks typically have either a V-head
or roller head and a height adjustment.
Rollers can be adjusted horizontally for
various pipe diameter.
4.3.1 Pipe Jacks and Rollers
4.3.2 Chain Clamps
Chain clamps are used to align and hold
pipe for fit-up and tacking.
The chain, which is anchored to one
side of the clamp, is passed around the
pipe and secured.
The slack in the chain is then removed
using a screw jack to pull the pipe tightly
against the clamp.
4.3.3 Other Pipe Alignment and
Clamping Tools
Cage clamps are another style of clamp
that can also be used to for the same
purpose.
Cage clamps come in a variety of styles
and sizes.
All cage clamps must be installed
manually.
Cage clamps are good for aligning and
holding two sections of straight pipe.
They are of no use when a flange must be
welded.
Cage Clamp
4.3.3 Other Pipe Alignment and
Clamping Tools
One of the devices used when welding
flanges onto pipes is a rim clamp.
The jack screws on a rim clamp exert
pressure on specific high points so the
precise alignment can be made.
These clamps are ideal for tasks in
which 100 percent weld and grind is
required before the clamp can released.
Rim Clamp
5.1.0 Causes of Distortion
Distortion is the expansion and
contraction of metal as it responds to
changes in temperature.
Distortion is caused by the nonuniform
expansion and contraction of the weld
metal and adjacent base metal during
the heating and cooling cycles of
welding.
5.1.0 Causes of Distortion
When the base metal is heated during the
welding process, it will attempt to expand
but will be restricted by the surrounding
cooler base metal.
Even when the weld is at room
temperature, stress equal to the strength of
the base metal will be locked in the
weldment.
This is called residual stress.
5.2.0 - The degree of distortion is directly
related to the stresses generated during
welding.
5.3.1 Clamping & Bracing
Field fabricated alignment devices are
often used to hold weldments firmly in
place during the welding process.
They must also be left in place long
enough to allow the weldment to cool to
ambient temperature.
5.3.2 Tack Welding
A tack weld holds parts of a weldment in
proper alignment until the finish welds
are made.
If too few tacks are made, the joint will
close up as the weld proceeds.
5.3.3 Amount of Weld Material
The more weld metal placed in a joint,
the greater the forces of shrinkage.
Excess reinforcement on the face of a
weld increases the forces of the weld .
Excess face reinforcement actually
reduces the strength of a weld and is
therefore prohibited by welding codes.
Groove welds should have a slight
reinforcement of no more than 1/8” for
butt or corner welds.
5.3.3 Amount of Weld Material
Proper fit-up and edge preparation also
reduce the amount of weld required.
Open-root joints should have a root
opening from 1/16” to 1/8”.
To control melt-through, a root face of 1/16”
to 1/8” is used.
Each side of the open-root joint is beveled
from 30 to 37 ½ degrees.
The bevel angle must be sufficient to allow
access to the root.
5.3.4 Backing Strips on Groove
Welds
Various forms of the backing materials
or strips can be applied to the back side
of plate weldments.
Temporary strips typically have a groove
machined directly into them that controls
the shape and size of the penetration
material once it cools.
5.3.4 Backing Strips on Groove
Welds
If the backing strip is designed to
become part of the permanent
weldment, it must be made of material
similar to the alloy or metal being
welded.
When thick metal backing strips are
used on groove welds, the root opening
normally opens to ¼” and the bevel is
reduces to 22 ½ degrees.
5.3.5 Open Root Pipe Welds
Molten metal that extends beyond the
back or opposite side of the groove is
called root reinforcement.
When welding pipe, the amount of root
reinforcement on the inside of the pipe
must be controlled.
Excessive root reinforcement on the
interior of the pipe interferes with the
flow in the pipe, causing turbulence and
other problems.
5.3.6 Backing Rings
Backing rings are flat metal strips that have
been rolled to fit inside a pipe.
They can be ordered in a variety of base
metal types to match the base metal being
welded.
Backing rings have three or more nubs
around the outside of the ring.
The diameter of the nub is the root opening
required for the pipe being welded.
The nubs are removed by striking them
with a chipping hammer.
5.3.6 Backing Rings
5.3.7 Consumable Inserts on
Pipe Welds
Consumable inserts are similar to
backing rings.
They are completely consumed during
welding and become part of the finished
weld.
They must match the filler metal
requirements for the weld being made.
5.3.8 Inserts on Socket Joints
Socket joints generally are used on pipe
that is 5” or smaller in diameter.
A socket joint uses a prefabricated fitting
containing sockets on the ends; the pipe
slips into these sockets.
The fitting and pipe are joined using a
fillet weld.
5.3.8 Inserts on Socket Joints
In order to eliminate stress, distortion,
and possible cracking by expansion
during heating, the end of the pipe must
not touch the bottom of the socket.
Socket welds require a 1/16” to 1/8” gap
between the end of the pipe and the
bottom of the socket fitting.
5.3.8 Inserts on Socket Joints
There are two ways to ensure that the
gap between the end of the pipe and the
socket fitting is maintained.
One way is to scribe the pipe a preset
distance from the end.
The gap is checked by measuring from
the scribed line to the socket and then
adding the socket depth.
5.3.8 Inserts on Socket Joints
The second method of ensuring the
correct gap is to use a gap ring.
The gap ring is placed in the bottom of
the socket and becomes a permanent
part of the joint.
Gap rings are commonly called gap-o-
lets.
5.3.8 Inserts on Socket Joints
5.3.10 Backstep Welding
Backstep welding is a welding technique
in which the general progression of
welding is from left to right.
But the weld beads are deposited in
short increments from right to left.
This technique reduces distortion by
minimizing and interrupting heat input.
5.3.10 Backstep Welding
5.3.11 Welding Sequence
A welding sequence involves placing welds
at different points on a weldment so that
shrinkage forces in one location are
counteracted by shrinkage forces in
another location.
A simple welding sequence is to make
short welds on alternating sides of the joint.
Welding sequences are often performed by
two individuals welding on opposite sides
of a joint at he same time.
This type of welding is often called buddy
welding.
It is a very effective way to control
distortion.
5.3.12 Heat Treatments
Distortion can be controlled by
preheating and postheating.
Applying heat before welding is called
preheating.
Applying heat immediately after the
welding is called postheating.
6.0.0 Checking Joint
Misalignment and Fit-Up
The quality of joint preparation and fit-up
directly affects the quality of the
completed weld.
By thoroughly checking the joint fit-up,
potential problems can be avoided.
Check that the joint surfaces are free of
contamination such as grease, oil,
moisture and rust.
If there is contamination, clean the joint
before continuing.
Summary
It is very important to perform proper
joint fit up and alignment to ensure an
acceptable weld.
The proper fit-up measuring devices and
tools must be used to accomplish this.
Government agencies, professional
societies, and associations have written
guidelines for joint fit-up and alignment.
All fit-up procedures should follow these
guidelines.
Review Questions
Answer Review questions 1-10
Answer Trade Terms 1-11