CHAPTER II

GENETICS AND HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
BEHAVIOR GENETICS

 Seeks to determine the extent to

which our behavior and the rest of
our individual differences can be
attributed to genes
……………BEHAVIOR GENETICS
 NURTURE- believed that some personality traits like
being SHY have been attributed to the environment.
For example , the person is shy because when he
was a child, he did not have enough opportunities
to interact with others.
 NATURE- research study showed that some
personality traits such as AGGRESION, SHYNESS,
etc. and even PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER can be
INHERITED
MECHANISM OF HEREDITY
 HEREDITY OR “NATURE”
-Is the transmission of physical as well
as psychological characteristics from
parents to offspring through the genes.
……….MECHANISM OF HEREDITY

 GONADS (Testes and Ovaries)-Produce

gametes or the cell responsible for the
reproduction of sperms and ova
respectively.
Testes  Sperms
Ovaries  Ova
……….MECHANISM OF HEREDITY

 OVULATION

 The period when one of the ovaries releases

a fertile egg or mature egg at least once a
month.
……….MECHANISM OF HEREDITY

 The nucleus of every cells (sperms & ova)

contains 23 pairs of CHROMOSOMES
made up of DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC
ACID), acting as a code for genetic
information.
……….MECHANISM OF HEREDITY

 When the sperms and eggs become

mature (they become ready for
reproduction, a certain kind of cell
division, known as meiosis, takes place).
 ……….MECHANISM OF HEREDITY

 TWO KINDS OF CELL DIVISION

1.) MEIOSIS-Splitting of the cell happens, leaving each

mature sperm and each mature egg with only 23
single chromosomes.
2.) MITOSIS-The zygote with all its component
chromosomes, reproduces itself. Thus, this kind of cell
division means cell REPRODUCTION and not cell
seperation.
SPERM-23 EGG- 23
PAIRS PAIRS

At Maturity splitting of cell happens (MEIOSIS) living each

mature cells with only 23 SINGLE CHROMOSOMES
At fertilization
sperm and egg cell
pairs again to
create new human
with 23 pairs of
chromosome- ½
egg cell-MOTHER,
½ sperm cell-
FATHER After 9 months

Through 2nd cell division,

(MITOSIS)-ZYGOTE reproduces
itself. Zygote will reside to
UTERUS and After 9 MONTHS,
BILLIONS OF CELLS will have
been formed
……….MECHANISM OF HEREDITY

 UTERUS (Womb)

A fist-sized, pear shaped organ which

becomes HOME for the new organism in the
form of zygote (fertilized egg) for the next 9
months.
……….MECHANISM OF HEREDITY

 GENES
 True Units of heredity as they determine the
inherited features and potentials of the new
developing organism.
 Genes always work in pairs which comes from
mother and father. Sometimes paired genes are:
 Identical- single type of gene determine features
and sometimes
 (Polygenic)-NOT identical, interaction different
genes determine the physical features
……….MECHANISM OF HEREDITY

Single type of Gene Determination (identical genes)

Mother Father

GAVE BLUE GAVE BLUE

EYES GENE EYES GENE

PAIRED IDENTICAL GENES RESULTS TO

CHILD
BLUE EYES
……….MECHANISM OF HEREDITY

GENOTYPE-Genes that the person inherits from the

parents that make up his genetic constitution. Some
genes are not being showed up or observable.

PHENOTYPE- The outcome or the “observable

characteristics”, will depend on which gene is dominant
and which gene is recessive
……….MECHANISM OF HEREDITY

 DOMINANT GENE- one whose trait

always SHOWS UP when paired with
another gene.
 RECESSIVE GENE-one whose
characteristic will NOT be OBSERVABLE
when paired with a dominant gene.
……….MECHANISM OF HEREDITY

DOMINANT RECESSIVE
BROWN EYES OR DARK EYES BLUE OR LIGHT-COLORED EYES
DARK OR BUNETTE HAIR LIGHT, BLONDE, OR RED HAIR
CURLY HAIR STRAIGHT HAIR
NORMAL HAIR BALDNESS
NORMAL COLOR VISION COLOR BLINDNESS
NORMAL SIGHT NIGHT BLINDNESS
NORMAL HEARING CONGENITAL DISEASE
NORMAL SKIN COLOR ALBINISM
NORMAL BLOOD HEMOPHILIA
……….MECHANISM OF HEREDITY

Polygenic Gene Determination (NOT identical genes)

Mother Father

GAVE BROWN GAVE BLUE

EYES GENE EYES GENE

DOMINANT GENE (BROWN ) PAIRED WITH RECESSIVE GENE (BLUE)

CHILD
BROWN EYES
 (GENOTYPE) (GENOTYPE)
BROWN EYES BLUE EYES
FATHER
(GENOTYPE) (PHENOTYPE) (PHENOTYPE)
BROWN EYES BROWN EYES BROWN EYES

MOTHER (GENOTYPE)
BLUE EYES
(PHENOTYPE)
BROWN EYES
(PHENOTYPE)
BLIUE EYES

LEGEND: G-GENOTYPE

BOTH FATHER AND MOTHER HAVE BROWN EYE AND BLUE EYE GENES. ON THE
AVERAGE, THREE OF THE CHILDREN WILL HAVE BROWN EYES (TWO OF THEM
NOW CARRIES THE BLUE EYE-GENE) AND ONE WILL HAVE BLUE EYES.
GENETIC ABNORMALITIES
 Genes are genuine link to our ancestors since they
are passed from generation to generation.
 If ABNORMALITIES have NOT been appearing in
the PREVIOUS GENERATION, their presence in NEW
GENERATION is due to….
 MUTATION- A process where genes become
altered or damaged resulting in defective
characteristics.
GENETIC ABNORMALITIES
 HUNTINGTONS DISEASE

A fatal disorder that involves LOSS OF MOTOR

CONTROL and PROGRESSIVE DETERIORATION of
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
 The Disorder is caused by a single dominant gene,
but does not emerge until adulthood.
GENETIC ABNORMALITIES
 DOWN SYNDROME OR TRISOMY 21

 Children born with TRIO INSTEAD OF TWO

CHROMOSOMES in 21st PAIR.
 Result develop a distinctive physical appearance and
retarded intellectual growth.
 The condition is named after John Langdon
GENETIC ABNORMALITIES
 ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE

A degenerative disorder (getting worse as

time passes by). Early onset happens at 40
years old.
 Involves LOSS of memory and increased
confusion in the later period of life.
 WITH ALZHEIMERS

In AD, specific neuropathologic and biochemical changes

are thought to result in decreased brain size and decrease
in acetylcholine production, which leads to shrinking and
dying of several brain areas. Wrinkles along its surface
become smoother
WITH ALZHEIMERS
MULTPLE BIRTHS
 IDENTICAL TWINS (MONOZYGOTIC TWINS)
 Develop from ONE ZYGOTE that actually splits in the first
cell division. Twins share 100 % of genes. Thus, can’t be boy
and girl.
 As mentioned previously, in mitosis, cell division does not
mean cell separation rather cell reproduces itself together
with its DNA contents.
E

REPLICATES

DEVELOPED INTO SEPARATE INDIVIDUALS WITH

SIMILAR FEATURES
MULTPLE BIRTHS
 Conjoined twins are monozygotic multiples
that do not fully separate from each other due
to the incomplete division of the fertilized
ovum.
 The individuals will be connected at certain
points of the body, and may share tissue,
organs or limbs.
MULTPLE BIRTHS
 FRATERNAL TWINS (DIZYGOTIC TWINS)
 Develop from TWO DIFFERENT ZYGOTE that have
been formed when TWO MATURE EGGS were
fertilized by TWO MATURE SPERMS.
 Dizygotic Twins- are no more ALIKE genetically. Thus,
different also in physical features. They shared only
50% genes just like ordinary brothers and sisters born
at different times. It can be boy and girl twin.
S E E S
DIFFERENT
ZYGOTE

F. TWIN F. TWIN
A B
SEX DETERMINATION
 The sex of the child is DETERMINE BY THE FATHER
and not by the mother.
 Sex chromosomes are called Gonosomes
 In females- XX
 In male-Xy
 “X is a LARGER chromosome y is SMALLER
chromosome”
 MOTHER X X
(GIRL) (GIRL)
X XX XX
FATHER
(BOY) (BOY)

y Xy Xy
When it is the sperm carrying the X sex chromosome that
fertilizes the ovum, the resulting pair of sex chromosomes in the
zygote will be XX (Female).

If it is the sperm carrying the Y that fertilizes the ovum pair of

sex chromosome is Xy (male)
SEX-LINKED TRAITS
 Trait that are controlled by genes found in the sex
chromosomes are called sex-linked traits.
 “GENES IN THE X CHROMOSOME CONTROL
VIRTUALLY ALL THESE SEX-LINKED TRAITS SINCE
THE Y IS SMALL AND CARRIES FEW GENES.
 As a result MALE is more VULNERABLE TO TRAITS
LIKE COLOR BLINDNESS, BALDESS AND
HEMOPHILIA.
…..SEX-LINKED TRAITS
 A Female may carry a gene for blindness in one X
gonosome, yet may not come out with the defect,
because normal color vision may be present in the
other X.

COLOR NORMAL
BLIND COLOR VISION

WINNER: NORMAL COLOR VISION

…..SEX-LINKED TRAITS
 In contrast, it is easy for a male to inherit the defect
once the recessive gene is present in the X
gonosome , since it is most unlikely that the small Y
gonosome will carry the dominant normal gene.

COLOR
BLIND NO DOMINANT GENE
BECAUSE IT IS SMALL OR
FEWER

WINNER: COLOR BLINDESS

 MOTHER X X

NORMAL HAIR NORMAL HAIR

X XX XX
FATHER
BALNESS NORMAL HAIR

y Xy Xy
LEGEND: X- (RED) STANDS FOR GENE WITH RECESSIVE TRAIT (BALNESS)
MOTHER IS CARRIER OF RECESSIVE GENE (BALDNESS):
ON THE AVERAGE,
 ONE OF THE MALE CHILDREN WILL BE BALD
ONE OF THE FEMALES NOW CARRIES THE BALDNESS RECESSIVE TRAIT
 TWO OF THEM WILL BE FREE OF RECCESIVE GENE FOR BALNESS
HEMOPHILIA
ALBINISM
NATURE-NURTURE INTERACTIONS

 ARNOLD GESELL
 Thefirst psychologist to systematically investigate the
role of NATURE in behavior.

 JOHN B. WATSON
 Disagreed with Gesell, inferring from his experiments
on children that the ENVIRONMENT, not nature, shapes
development.
..NATURE-NURTURE INTERACTIONS

 JEAN PIAGET
 BOTH HEREDITY (NATURE) AND ENVIRONMENT
(NURTURE) jointly shape a person’s abilities, skills,
psychological characteristics and certainly the physical
traits as well.
 EPIGENETIC APPROACH –Study of nature-nurture
interactions explains the sequence to be like this:

“Genetically controlled behaviors is modified and

fashioned by the environment”
A. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
1.) ZYGOTE or (the fertilized ovum)- a single-cell
organism where the human being starts.
2.) EMBRYO-(2nd week) second stage of development,
wherein zygote divides into many more cells.
 In this stage, the new organism develops a heart,
nervous system, stomach, esophagus and ovaries or
testes.
 By the end of 2
nd month, this inch-long embryo has

developed eyes, ears, nose, jaw, mouth and lips. Its tiny
arm have elbows, hands and stubby fingers; the legs
have knees, ankles and toes.
…..A. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
3.) FETUS- it the remaining 7 month period until birth.
The organ start to grow and to function.
 By the end of 7 month, although still immature, the
organ systems are already functional, making
premature births capable of survival.
 In the 8 and 9 months, the fetus can respond to light

and touch, and can even hear what is going on

outside.
…..A. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
 During prenatal Development
 PLACENTA-A spongy organ that develops in the uterus
during pregnancy where the fetus gets its nourishment.
 UMBILICAL CORD-Connect the placenta and the fetus
 AMNIOTIC SAC-A fluid-filled sac that cushions fetus
against sudden movements or physical blows to the
mother.
 TERATOGENS-(TA-RAT-A-JENS)- a harmful external
substances (drugs, nicotine and viruses etc.) that are
especially damaging during embryonic stage when
critical maturational processes may take place.
…..A. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
…..A. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
…..A. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD

 NEONATES (Newborns)-enter the world

equipped with reflexes that promote
their survival and provide them with
protection.
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
 Infant’s Reflexes
 Sucking Reflex- allows the newborn the ability to
adjust to its new manner of taking food.
(remember that inside womb, it took nourishment
through umbilical cord to get nutrients from
placenta).
 Rooting Reflex-aiding the newborn baby to find
mother’s nipple to receive its nourishment.
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
 Infant’s Reflexes
 Grasping (gripping) reflex-when a finger is pressed
into a newborn’s palm it causes the infant to hold on
tightly and strongly enough to suspend its entire weight.
 Moro reflex (startle) reflex-sudden noise causes arms
and legs are flung to the sides, then arms are brought
toward the body in a hugging motion.
 Babinski reflex-infant’s toes fan upward when the
bottom of the foot is stroked.
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
 Sensory and Perceptual Abilities

 The newborn’s eyesight is estimated at 20/300, but by 6 to

12 months visual acuity improves about 20/20.
 At 2-3 days of age they can hear soft voices and turn their
heads toward sounds.
 Studies have found that 3-day old babies prefer complex
patterns such as bull eyes, check boards.
 Among the shapes they are more excited by circles and
curves.
 In some experiment, they found that infants preferred
looking at human faces and patterned materials.
 ….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
Figure 2.9 Visual
preferences of
50 infants
Three to four month
40 old babies show
Percentage of infants

strong preference
total fixation time

30 for faces and

patterns and striking
20 colors rather than
pale ones.
10

Lette Red Yellow White

rslett color color color

Items shown to infants

….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
 Infant smell and taste sensitivities seem to be
present at birth.
 Babies seem to like the smell of flowers and taste
of sweet drinks.
 They react to sour and bitter with remarkable
similarity with adults.
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
 Physical and Motor Development

“The first two years of life is a period of

rapid development”
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
1 month old-Helpless
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
3 months-Legs and knees are firm
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
4 months-Sits with support
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
6 months-Moves about in a walker
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
8 months- Plays tumbling
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
11 months-Walks if led
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
1 year old-Walks alone
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
1 ½ year old-Climbs stairs
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
2 Years old-Dances
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
 Language Acquisition
 6-8 week- babies begin cooing, the repetition of
vowel sounds “ooh” and “ahh”
 6 months- the nervous system has matured enough to
permit babbling, that is the repetition of meaningless
language sounds both vowel and consonants sounds.
 1yr.-1 ½ yrs.- the child begin to use single words.

 Soon after this single-word stage, words are arranged

in simple two-sentences called telegraphic speech.
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
 Social and Emotional Development
 JohnBowlby- developed Attachment Theory-value of
developing strong attachment to one’s caregivers, a
bonding that will keep individuals safe.
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD

 Easy Babies-get hungry and sleepy at predictable times,

react cheerfully and seldom fuss.
 Difficult infants-are irregular and irritable.
 Slow to warm babies-babies fuss at the beginning but
eventually come to enjoy their activities

“Difficult babies often developed attention and aggression

in childhood, while slow to warm up toddlers tend to
become shy preschoolers and somewhat anxious teens”
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
 Cognitive Development

 JEAN PIAGET proposed that cognitive

development progresses through a series of
predictable stages that come about the same ages.
 Schemas- mental images or generalizations formed
as the person experiences the world.
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
 Cognitive Development

 Two processes guide the formation of schemas:

 Assimilation-is the process by which we integrate new

information with our existing knowledge of things.
 Accommodation-we alter our schemas so that we can
include new information that does not fit into our existing
ways of thinking.
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
 Cognitive Development

 I.Sensorimotor Stage (birth to age 2), infants and

young children learn about their world through the
senses, like seeing, hearing, and through motor skills like
grasping and sucking.
 As the periods ends the children should learn the
principle of object permanence –recognition that
objects continue to exist even though they are not
directly sensed.
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
 Cognitive Development

 II.
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old)- the child
develops an ability to think symbolically and to use
language but his thinking is still intuitive and egocentric
(self-centered)
 Children conversation:
Miko: “My dad bought a new car”
Andre: “I’m going to have balloons on my birthday”
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
 Cognitive Development

 III.
Concrete operational Stage (7-11 years old)-
become able to think logically, but only with real,
concrete objects-marble, sticks, tools, etc.-but not with
abstract concepts, like faith and freedom. There is too
reversibility of thought, like recognizing that if A is
equal to B, Then b is equal to A.
….B. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
Concrete operational Stage (Acquisition of Conservation)
….B. INFANCY AND CH
 Cognitive Development

 IV.
Formal Operational Stage (12 onwards)-
Children gain the ability to think logically
about abstract ideas. (Faith, Freedom)

 Childrenare capable developing hypotheses

or best guesses about ways of solving
problems.