Electrical Instruments
Reference Text books:
1. Basic Electrical Engineering by D. C.
Kulshreshtha
2. A Course in Electrical & Electronic
Measurements & Instrumentation by A. K.
Sawhney
Measuring Instruments
Classification
1. Absolute instruments:-
Gives the magnitude of the quantity in terms of
the constants of the instruments
Example :-
A tangent galvanometer, measures current in
terms of the tangent of the angle of deflection
produced by the current, radius & no. of turns of
the galvanometer
2. Secondary instruments:-
These have to be calibrated by comparison with
an absolute instrument
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Classification of Secondary Instruments
1. Indicating instruments
Ordinary voltmeters, ammeters & wattmeter's.
2. Recording instruments
X-Y plotter e.g. ECG (Electro-Cardio-Gram).
3. Integrating instruments
Ampere-hour meter, watt-hour (energy) meter
and odometer in a car (which measures the total
distance covered)
Indicating Instruments
Principle of Operation
• Different effects like Magnetic effect, Thermal
effect (thermocouple is used), Electrostatic
effect, Induction Effect (disc or drum), Hall
effect
Essentials of an Indicating Instruments
In order to ensure proper operation of indicating instruments. Three
torque are needed
The controlling torque serves two functions : (i) the pointer stops moving
beyond the final deflection, (ii) the pointer comes back to its zero
position when the instrument is disconnected.
(i) Spring Control
• Most commonly used.
• One or two hairsprings made of phosphor bronze are used.
• The outer end of this spring is fixed to the pointer and the
inner end is attached with the spindle.
• When the pointer is at zero of the scale, the spring is normal.
• As the pointer moves, the spring winds and produces an
opposing torque.
• The balance-weight balances the moving system so that its
centre of gravity coincides with the axis of rotation, thereby
reducing the friction between the pivot and bearings.
c W sin L WL sin
Since d I , and c d
or WL sin kI
WL
I sin
k
or I sin
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Disadvantage :
1. These do not have uniform scale.
2. These must be used in vertical position so that the control
may operate properly.
Advantages :
1. Less expensive.
2. Unaffected by changes in temperature.
3. Free from fatigue or deterioration with time.
Disadvantages :
(i) Cannot be used for ac measurement.
(ii) More expensive compared to moving-iron type.
(iii) Ageing of control springs and of the permanent
magnets might cause errors.
M
Ammeter
I m Rm
Rsh
( I fsd I m )
I m Rm Rm Rm
or Rsh
( I fsd I m ) ( I fsd / I m 1) ( N 1)
M
R
Voltmeter
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Extending the Range of Voltmeters
Rm
M Rs Click
1 mA
Vm = 2 V Vs = 98 V RT = Rs + Rm
Click
Maximum voltage that can be put across galvanometer is
Vm = I Rm = 0.001 x 2000 = 2.0 V
Thus, Vs = VT - Vm = 100 V - 2 V = 98 V
This voltage must be dropped across Rs. Therefore,
Rs = Vs/I = 98 V / 0.001 A = 98 kΩ
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Voltage Scaling or Multiplying Factor
It is defined as the number of times the voltage range
is increased. Thus,
Vfsd Vfsd
n
Vm I m Rm
Vt 150 V
50 kΩ
50 V
100 kΩ 50 kΩ
• Rx is an unknown resistor
• R2 is varied until no current flows through the galvanometer G
• Let I1, I2, I3 and Ix be the currents through the four resistors.
• I1 = I2 and I3 = Ix
• No current through G: no voltage difference across it
• I1R1 = I3R3 and I2R2 = IxRx Rx = R3R2/R1
Single-Phase Induction Type Wattmeter/Energy Meter