Environmental

Hazards
&
Human Health
Core Case Study: The Global HIV/AIDS Epide
mic
 Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HI
V); many secondary infections
 No vaccine to prevent or cure AIDS
 Expensive drugs—live longer
 25 Million deaths, so far; alter country’s age s
tructure
Lesions That Are a Sign of Kaposi’s Sarc
oma
Global Outlook: Worldwide, AIDS Is the Leadi
ng Cause of Death for Ages 15–49
 100+
95–99
90–94
85–89
80–84
75–79
70–74
65–69
60–64
55–59 Males Females
Age

50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
120100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Population (thousands)
With AIDS Without AIDS
Fig. 17-2, p. 438
17-1: What Major Health Hazards Do We Fac
e?
Concept 17-1 :
People face health hazards from biologic
al, chemical, physical, and cultural facto
rs, and from the lifestyle choices they ma
ke.
Risks Are Usually Expressed as Probabilities
Risk
the probability of suffering harm from a haza
rd that can cause injury, disease, death, econo
mic loss, or damage.
Probability and possibility
Risk Assessment
Risk Management
Science: Risk Assessment and Risk Managem
ent
Risk Assessment Risk Management

Hazard identification Comparative risk analysis

What is the hazard? How does it compare with oth
er risks?

Risk reduction
How much should it be reduced?
Probability of risk H
ow likely is the event?

Risk reduction strategy

How will the risk be reduced?

Consequences of risk Financial commitment

What is the likely damage? How much money should be spe
nt?

Fig. 17-3, p. 440

We Face Many Types of Hazards:
Five major types of hazards:
Biological: pathogens
Chemical
Physical
Cultural
Lifestyle choices
17-2:What Types of Biological Hazards Do We F
ace?

Concept 17-2 :
In terms of death rates, the most serious
infectious diseases are flu, AIDS, diarrh
eal diseases, malaria, and tuberculosis; m
ost of these deaths occur in developing co
untries.
Some Diseases Can Spread from One Person to Ano
ther (1)

 Nontransmissible disease- caused by something other th

an a living organism and does not spread from one pers
on to another.
 Infectious disease-when a pathogen such as a bacteriu
m, virus, or parasite invades the body and multiplies in
its cells and tissues.
 Transmissible disease -contagious or communicable dise
ase
Some Diseases Can Spread from One Person t
o Another (2)
Since 1950, death from infectious diseases ha
ve declined due to:
• Better health care
• Antibiotics
• Vaccines
Disability-adjusted life years
(DALYs)
Major Causes of Death in the World and in t
he United States in 2005
 World 30%
Cardiovascular
disease
United Sta 39%
tes

World 30%
Infectious diseas
es United S
7%
tates

World 17%

Cancers
United S
23%
tates
Fig. 17-4, p. 441
 World 30%
Cardiovascular
disease
United Sta 39%
tes

World 30%
Infectious diseas
es United S
7%
tates

World 17%

Cancers
United S
23%
tates
Stepped Art
Fig. 17-4, p. 441
Infectious Diseases Are Still Major Health Th
reats
Infectious diseases spread through:
Air
Water
Food
Body fluids
Epidemics and pandemics
Resistance of bacteria and insects
Pathways for Infectious Diseases in Human
s
 Wild anim
Pets Livestock als Insects Food Water Air

Fetus and babies

Other humans Humans

Fig. 17-5, p. 441

The World’s Seven Deadliest Infectious Disease
s Kill 12.5 Million People
 Disease
(type of agent) Deaths per year

Pneumonia and flu 3.2 million

(bacteria and viruses)

HIV/AIDS (virus) 2.1 million

Diarrheal diseases (bac

1.9 million
teria and viruses)

Tuberculosis
1.7 million
(bacteria)

Malaria
1 million
(protozoa)

Hepatitis B
1 million
(virus)

Measles
800,000
(virus)
Fig. 17-6, p. 442
 Disease
(type of agent) Deaths per year

Pneumonia and flu 3.2 million

(bacteria and viruses)

HIV/AIDS (virus) 2.1 million

Diarrheal diseases (bac

1.9 million
teria and viruses)

Tuberculosis
1.7 million
(bacteria)

Malaria
1 million
(protozoa)

Hepatitis B
1 million
(virus)

Measles
800,000 Stepped Art
(virus)
Fig. 17-6, p. 442
Case Study: The Growing Global Threat from T
uberculosis

 Why is tuberculosis on the rise?

Not enough screening and control programs
Genetic resistance to a majority of effective
antibiotics
Person-to-person contact has increased
AIDS individuals are very susceptible to TB
Some Viral Diseases Kill Large Numbers of Peo
ple (1)
 Influenza or flu virus
Biggest killer
Transmitted by the body fluids or airborne emissions
of an infected person.
 HIV
The second biggest viral killer
AIDS is a serious and growing threat, but fortunatel
y it is not as easily spread as is the common flu.
Some Viral Diseases Kill Large Numbers of Peo
ple (2)
Global strategy to slow down the spread of HIV

Reduce the number of new infections

Concentrate on those most likely to spread HIV
Free testing
Education for prevention
Provide free or low-cost drugs
Research
Some Viral Diseases Kill Large Numbers of Peo
ple (3)

 Hepatitis B virus (HBV)

third largest viral killer
damages the liver and kills about a mil
lion people each year.
Viruses that move form animals to hum
ans:
West Nile virus
Severe acute respiratory syndrome(SARS)

 Reduce chances of infection:

Wash your hands
Case Study: Malaria—Death by Parasite-Carryi
ng Mosquitoes (1)
 Malaria
Caused by Plasmodium parasite carried by An
opheles mosquitoes
Ingests blood that contains the parasite, and l
ater bites an uninfected person. Plasmodium p
arasites then move out of the mosquito and go
into the human’s bloodstream and liver where
they multiply.
Case Study: Malaria—Death by Parasite-Carryi
ng Mosquitoes (2)
 Malaria on the rise since 1970
Drug resistant Plasmodium
Insecticide resistant mosquitoes
Effect of global warming
AIDS patients particularly vulnerable

 Prevention of spread and current research

Global Outlook: Distribution of Malaria
A Boy in Brazil’s Amazon Sleeps Under an Inse
cticide-Treated Mosquito Net
We Can Reduce the Incidence of Infectious D
iseases
Good news
Vaccinations on the rise
Oral rehydration therapy
Bad news
• More money needed for medical resear
ch in developing countries
Solutions: Infectious Diseases, Ways to Prevent
or Reduce Their Occurrence
 SOLUTIONS
Infectious Diseases
Increase research on tropical
diseases and vaccines
Reduce poverty
Decrease malnutrition
Improve drinking water qualit
y
Reduce unnecessary use
of antibiotics
Educate people to take all of
an antibiotic prescription
Reduce antibiotic use to
promote livestock growth
Require careful hand washin
g by all medical personnel

Immunize children against

major viral diseases
Provide oral rehydration for
diarrhea victims
Conduct global campaign
to reduce HIV/AIDS
Fig. 17-10, p. 447
17-3:What Types of Chemical Hazards Do We F
ace?

Concept 17-3
There is growing concern about chemicals th
at can cause birth defects and cancers and d
isrupt the human immune, nervous, and end
ocrine systems.
Some Chemicals Can Cause Cancers, Mutations,
and Birth Defects
Toxic chemicals
Carcinogens- chemicals, types of radiation, or certain v
iruses that can cause or promote cancer.
Mutagens-chemicals or forms of radiation that cause m
utations, or changes, in the DNA molecules found in ce
lls, or that increase the frequency of such changes.
Teratogens-chemicals that cause harm or birth defects t
o a fetus or embryo.
Potential Pathways on Which Toxic Chemicals
Move Through the Environment
 Atmosphere

Vegetation
Crops

Surface water Humans

Animals

Vegetation

Fig. 17-11, p. 449

Some Chemicals May Affect Our Immune, Nerv
ous, and Endocrine Systems (1)

Some natural and synthetic chemicals in th

e environment can weaken and harm:
Immune system
Nervous system
Endocrine system
Some Chemicals May Affect Our Immune, Nerv
ous, and Endocrine Systems (2)
 Hormonally active agents (HAAs)
Gender benders
Thyroid disrupters
Toxic chemicals
 Phthlates
 Effects on the endocrine system
 Cancer
 Science Focus: Mercury’s Toxic Effects
How are humans exposed?
• Inhalation: vaporized Hg or particulate
s of inorganic salts
• Eating fish with high levels of methylm
ercury.
Science: Cycling of Mercury in Aquatic Envi
ronments
 WINDS PRECIPITATION WINDS PRECIPITATION
Hg and SO2 Hg2+ and acids Hg2+ and acids
Photo-chemi
Elemental cal oxidation
Inorganic
Human sources Inorganic mercury
mercury v mercury a and acids
apor nd acids (Hg2+)
Coal-burnin
(Hg) (Hg2+)

Deposition
Incinerator g plant

Runoff of Hg2+ and acids

Vaporization
Deposition

Deposition
Large fish

Small fish BIOMAGNIFICATION

IN FOOD CHAIN

Zooplankton Phytoplankton

Bacteria an
Elemental m Oxidation Inorganic d acids Organic
ercury liquid mercury mercury
(Hg) 2+
(Hg ) Bacteria (CH +
3Hg )

Settles Settles Settles

out out out

SEDIMENT

Fig. 17-A, p. 450

Solutions: Mercury Pollution
 SOLUTIONS

Mercury Pollution
Prevention
Phase out waste incineration
Remove mercury from
coal before it is burned
Control
Sharply reduce mercury emis
sions from coal-burning plan
ts and incinerators

Switch from coal to natural g Tax each unit of mercury e

as and renewable energy res mitted by coal-burning pla
ources such as wind, solar c nts and incinerators
ells, and hydrogen
Convert coal to liquid or
gaseous fuel Require labels on all product
s containing mercury
Phase out use of mercury in batt
eries, TVs, compact fluorescent l
ightbulbs, and all other products
Collect and recycle mercury-
unless they are recycled
containing electric switches,
relays, and dry-cell batteries

Fig. 17-B, p. 451

Hormones and Hormones Mimics or Blocker
s
Hormone Estrogen-like chemical Antiandrogen chemical

Receptor

Cell

Normal Hormone Process Hormone Mimic Hormone Blocker

Fig. 17-12, p. 452

Hormone Estrogen-like chemical Antiandrogen chemical

Receptor

Cell

Normal Hormone Process Hormone Mimic Hormone Blocker

Stepped Art
Fig. 17-12, p. 452
17-4 How Can We Evaluate and Deal with Chem
ical Hazards?
 Concept 17-4A Scientists use live laboratory anim
als, non-animal tests, case reports of poisonings, an
d epidemiological studies to estimate the toxicity of
chemicals, but these methods have limitations.
 Concept 17-4B Many health scientists call for muc
h greater emphasis on pollution prevention to reduc
e our exposure to potentially harmful candidates.
Many Factors Determine the Harmful Health Ef
fects of a Chemical (1)
 Toxicology
 Toxicity dependent on:
Dose
Age
Genetic makeup
Multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS)
Solubility and persistence of the chemical
Biomagnification
Many Factors Determine the Harmful Health E
ffects of a Chemical (2)

 Response
Acute effect
Chronic effect
Science: Estimating Human Exposure to Chemi
cals and Measuring Their Effects
 Water pollutant le
vels Air pollutant lev
Soil/dust leve els
ls

Food pesticide le
vels

Nutritional he
alth

Overall healt Scientific meas

h urements and
modeling

Lifestyle

Personal h Predicted level of toxic

abits ant in people

Genetic predisposi Metabolism

tion Accumulation
Excretion
Lung, intestine, and s
kin absorption rates Fig. 17-13, p. 454
Scientists Use Live Lab Animals and Nonanima
l Tests to Estimate Toxicity (1)
 Dose-response curve: median lethal dose (LD
50)
• Nonthreshold dose-response model
• Threshold dose-response model

 Can the data be extrapolated to humans?

Scientists Use Live Lab Animals and Nonanimal
Tests to Estimate Toxicity (2)
 More humane methods using animals
 Replace animals with other models
• Computer simulations
• Tissue culture and individual animal cells
• Chicken egg membranes
 What are the effects of mixtures of potentially
toxic chemicals?
There Are Other Ways to Estimate the Harmful
Effects of Chemicals
 Case reports and epidemiological studies
 Limitations of epidemiological studies
Too few people tested
Length of time
Can you link the result with the chemical?
Can not be used for new hazards
Some Potentially Harmful Chemicals Found in
Most Homes
 Shampoo Teddy bear Clothing Baby bottle
Perfluorochemicals Some stuffed animals m Can contain perfluo Can contain
to add shine ade overseas contain fl rochemicals bisphenol-A
Nail polish ame retardants and/or p
Perfluorochemicals a esticides Mattress
nd phthalates Flame retardants i
n stuffing
Perfume
Phthalates Carpet
Hairspray Padding and carpet
fibers contain flame
Phthalates
retardants, perfluor
Food ochemicals, and pe
Some food contains b sticides
isphenol-A TV
Wiring and plastic
Milk casing contain fla
Fat contains dioxins a me retardants
nd flame retardants
Sofa
Frying pan Foam padding conta
Nonstick coating co ins flame retardants
ntains perfluoroche and perfluorochemi
micals cals

Fruit Water bottle Computer Toys Tennis shoes

Tile floor
Imported fruit Can contain Flame retardan Vinyl toys Can contain
Contains perfluoroc may contain bisphenol-A t coatings of pl contain pht phthalates
hemicals, phthalate pesticides ba astic casing an halates
s, and pesticides nned in the U. d wiring
S. Fig. 17-16, p. 458
Why Do We Know So Little about the Harmful
Effects of Chemicals?

 Severe limitations estimating toxicity

levels and risks.
 Acceptable levels vary between 1/100
and 1/1000 of the estimated harmful
levels.
Pollution Prevention and the Precautionary
Principle
 Those introducing a new chemical or new technolog
y would have to follow new strategies
A new product is considered harmful until it ca
n be proved to be safe.
Existing chemicals and technologies that appear
to cause significant harm must be removed.
 2000: global treaty to ban or phase out the dirty do
zen (POPs)
17-5 How Do We Perceive Risks and How Can
We Avoid the Worst of Them?
Concept 17-5
We can reduce the major risks we face if w
e become informed, think critically about ri
sks, and make careful choices.
 The Greatest Health Risks Come from Poverty,
Gender, and Lifestyle Choices
 Risk analysis
 involves identifying hazards and evaluating their ass
ociated risks, ranking risks determining options and
making decisions about reducing or eliminating risks .
 Greatest health risks
Poverty
Gender
Lifestyle choices
Comparative Risk Analysis: Most Serious Ecolo
gical and Health Problems
 Stepped Art
Fig. 17-17, p. 461
Global Outlook: Number of Deaths per Year in
the World from Various Causes
Cause of death Annual deaths
Poverty/malnutrition/ 11 million (150)
disease cycle
Tobacco 5.4 million (74)
Pneumonia and flu 3.2 million (44)
Air pollution 3 million (41)

HIV/AIDS 2.1 million (29)

Diarrhea 1.9 million (26)
Tuberculosis 1.7 million (23)
Automobile ac
cidents 1.2 million (16)
Work-related injury a 1.1 million (15)
nd disease
Malaria 1 million (14)
Hepatitis B 1 million (14)
Measles 800,000 (11)

Fig. 17-18, p. 461

Comparison of Risks People Face in Terms of
Shorter Average Life Span
Case Study: Death from Smoking (1)
 Most preventable major cause of suffe
ring and premature death
 Nicotine: additive
 Effects of passive smoking (secondhan
d smoke)
Case Study: Death from Smoking (2)
 How to reduce smoking
Taxes
Ban
Classify and regulate nicotine
Education
Annual Deaths in the U.S. from Tobacco Use a
nd Other Causes in 2004
 Cause of Death Deaths

Tobacco use 442,000

Accidents 101,500 (43,450 auto)

Alcohol use 85,000

Infectious dise 75,000 (17,000 from AIDS)

ases

Pollutants/toxins 55,000

Suicides 30,600

Homicides 20,622

Illegal drug use 17,000

Fig. 17-20, p. 463
Most People Do Not Know How to Evaluate Ris
ks
Fear
Degree of control
Whether a risk is catastrophic
Optimism bias
Unfair distribution of risks
Several Principles Can Help Us to Evaluate an
d Reduce Risk
 Compare risks
 Determine how much you are willing to ac
cept
 Determine the actual risk involved
 Concentrate on evaluating and carefully
making important lifestyle choices.
Discussants: Hazel A. Enguillo
Jadelyn May A. Castronuevo
BSED-4D1