The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

We’ve learned two different branches of calculus

so far: differentiation and integration. Finding
slopes of tangent lines and finding areas under
curves seem unrelated, but in fact, they are very
closely related. It was Isaac Newton’s teacher at
Cambridge University, a man name Isaac Barrow
(1630 – 1677), who discovered that these two
processes are actually inverse operations of
each other in much the same way division and
multiplication are.
It was Newton and Leibniz who exploited this idea
and developed the calculus into it current form.
The Theorem Barrow discovered that states this
inverse relation between differentiation and
integration is called
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑎, 𝑏 .

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 1 (FToC1)

𝑏

1. න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑏 − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑓, 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐹 ′ = 𝑓
The integral gives the NET change

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 2 (FToC2)

𝑥

2. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹 𝑥 = න 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑎≤𝑥≤𝑏

𝑎
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑎, 𝑏 .
𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 𝐹 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑥
𝑑
𝐹′ 𝑥 = න 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑎
FToC1 bridges the antiderivative concept with the area problem.
This result, while taught early in elementary calculus courses, is
actually a very deep result connecting the purely algebraic indefinite
integral and the purely analytic (or geometric) definite integral.
To evaluate an integral, take the antiderivatives and subtract.

It can be proved and the proof

can be found elsewhere (WEB)

It is a “shortcut” rule for integration: an easier way (from

Riemann sums and other methods) to calculate definite
integrals.
 𝒃

𝑭𝑻𝒐𝑪 𝟏 න 𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑭 𝒃 − 𝑭(𝒂)
𝒂
 𝒙

𝑭𝑻𝒐𝑪 𝟐 (𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝟏) 𝑭(𝒙) = න 𝒇 𝒕 𝒅𝒕

where 𝑓 is a continuous function on 𝑎, 𝑏 , and𝒂 𝑥 varies between 𝑎 and 𝑏. Notice that this
integral equation is a function of 𝑥, which appears as the upper limit of integration. If 𝑓(𝑡)
happens to be positive, and we let 𝑥 𝜖 (𝑎, 𝑏] , then we can define 𝐹(𝑥) as the area under
the curve from 𝑎 to 𝑥.
 𝑥 𝑥
2
𝑡3 𝑡2
𝐹(𝑥) = න 𝑡 + 𝑡 + 1 = + +𝑡 อ
3 2
3 3
𝑥3 𝑥2 33
= + +𝑥−
3 2 2

𝑑 𝑥3 𝑥2 33
+ +𝑥− = 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑥 3 2 2
 𝒙
𝒅
𝑭𝑻𝒐𝑪 2 (𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 2) 𝑭′ 𝒙 = න𝒇 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙
𝒂

𝐹 𝑥 = න cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐹 ′ 𝑥 =?
Directly: −𝜋

𝐹 ′ 𝑥 = cos 𝑥

Or, longer way:

𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
𝐹′ 𝑥 = න cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝑡൩ Lower limit of integration
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−𝜋 −𝜋 is a constant.
𝑑
= sin 𝑥 − sin(−𝜋) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

d x 1 1

dx 1+t
0 2
dt 
1  x2
 What if upper limit is g(x) not x itself?
Or upper limit is constant and lower limit is x?

The upper limit of integration does not match the

d x2
dx 0
cos t dt derivative, but we could use the chain rule.

= cos  
x 
2 d 2
dx
x = cos  x 2
  2 x = 2 x cos  x 2


The lower limit of integration is not a

d 5

dx x
3t sin t dt constant, but the upper limit is.
We can change the sign of the integral
d x
= 
dx 5
3t sin t dt and reverse the limits.

= 3x sin x
 FToC 2, the most general form

𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑
න 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑔(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔′ 𝑥 − 𝑓 ℎ 𝑥 ∙ ℎ′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
ℎ(𝑥)

d x2 1
dx 2 x 2e t
dt

d x2 1
=
dx  2x 2e t
dt

1 1
 2x  2
2e x2
2e 2x
Example 10:
Evaluate the following using the FTOC2, then if feeling bored verify by doing in
the Loooooooong way.
 The Mean Value Theorem (for Integrals)

𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑐 𝜀 𝑎, 𝑏

𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑏

න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑐) 𝑏 − 𝑎
𝑎

Where 𝑓 (𝑐) is called the average value of the function 𝑓 on the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 .
The above equation above can be explicitly solved for 𝑓(𝑐) .

Geometric interpretation: For a positive function

𝑓(𝑥), there exists at least one number 𝑎 ≤ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏
such that the rectangle with base [𝑎, 𝑏] and height
𝑓(𝑐) has the same area as the region under the
graph of 𝑓(𝑥) from 𝑎 to 𝑏.
Find the mean (average) value of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 2 over the interval 1, 3
3
1
𝐴𝑉 = න 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑑𝑥
3−1
1
3
3
1 𝑥
𝐴𝑉 = + 2𝑥
2 3
1

1 27 1
𝐴𝑉 = +6 − +2
2 3 3

1 7
𝐴𝑉 = 15 −
2 3

19
𝐴𝑉 = = 6.33
3
 12 𝜋𝑡
‫׬‬0 50 + 14𝑠𝑖𝑛 12 𝑑𝑡
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
12 − 0

12
1 12 𝜋𝑡 14
= 50𝑡 − 14 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ቤ = 50 + 2
12 𝜋 12 0 𝜋

≈ 58.913
 2 2
‫׬‬−1 1 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥3
𝑓(𝑐) = = 𝑥+ อ
2 − (−1) 3 3
−1

1 8 1
= 2 + − (−1) − − =2
3 3 3

1 + x2 = 2 ⟹ 𝑐 = ± 1 for x = ± 1

For positive function 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 2 , there

exist two numbers 𝑐 = ±1 such that the
rectangle with base [−1, 1] and height
𝑓(±1) has the same area as the region under
the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) from -1 to 2.
The average rate of change of a car’s position over an interval is represented graphically
as the slope of the secant line to the graph position/time over the interval.
𝑥(𝑡2 ) − 𝑥(𝑡1 )
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
Average value of velocity over the same interval is:
𝑡2
1
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑡1

𝑡2
1
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓: න 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑡1
𝑡2
1 1
= න 𝑥′(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡2 ) − 𝑥(𝑡1 ) 𝑏𝑦 𝐹𝑇𝑜𝐶 1
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑡1
 σ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ≈ 40.429
7
Area

area = 1160 average=1160/30 ≈ 38.667

trapezoidal approximation is more accurate

that LRAM (basically arithmetic mean)
Sometimes we might have to solve an integral equation! Being able to simplify definite
integrals with variables in the interval of integration is important. Here are a couple of
examples showing an important application that is important.

1 𝑏
න 2 + 6𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 3
𝑏 0

3± 5
2 + 3𝑏 − 𝑏2 = 3 → 𝑏2 − 3𝑏 + 1 = 0 → 𝑏=
2
 2 3
𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 =න 2𝑥 2 − 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 𝐶
3

𝑓 0 =5=𝐶
2 19
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 5 𝑓 2 =
3 3

𝑥 2
19
𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + න 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(2) = 5 + න 2𝑥 2 − 2 𝑑𝑥 =
3
0 0
In the previous example, the first method relied heavily upon our ability to find the
antiderivative of the integrand. This is not always easy, possible, or prudent! Being able to
express a particular value of a particular solution to a derivative as a definite integral is of
paramount importance, especially when we don’t know how to find a general antiderivative.
(calculator can do easily definite integrals – see problem 20)

Hard Facts To Refute:

A. Where you are at any given time is a function of 1) where you started and 2) where you’ve
gone from your starting point (displacement).
B. What you have at any given moment is a function of 1) what you started with plus 2) what
you’ve accumulated since then.
When you accumulate at a variable rate, you can to use the definite integral to find your net
accumulation.
Important Idea of Accumulation***************************(* means VERY IMPORTANT)

What one has now = What one started with + What one has
accumulated since one started. This can be expressed
mathematically as
Example 19:
If 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (2𝑥) and 𝑓 2 = −2 find

(a) and integral equation for f(x) (b) f(3) (c) f(-2)

𝑥 𝑥
𝑎) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 2 + න 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 2 + 2 න 1 − cos 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2 2
𝑥
1 𝑥 1
= 𝑓 2 + 2𝑥 ቚ − sin 4𝑥 ቤ = −2 + 2𝑥 − 4 − sin 4𝑥 + sin(8)
2 2 2
2
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 6 − sin 4𝑥 + sin(8)
2

cos 2𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

1 − cos 2𝑥
=1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥→ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
=
2
1 + cos 2𝑥
= 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 → 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 =
2
Example 19 continues:

3 3
2
𝑏) 𝑓 3 = 𝑓 2 + න 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 2 + 2 න 1 − cos 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2 2

3
1
3 1 1
= −2 + 2𝑥 ቚ − sin 4𝑥 ቤ = −2 + 6 − 4 − sin 12 + sin(8)
2 2 2
2 2

1 1
𝑓 3 = sin 8 − sin 12
2 2

−2 −2
b) 𝑓 −2 = −2 + ‫׬‬2 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −2 + 2 ‫׬‬2 1 − cos 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
−2
−2 1 1 1
= −2 + 2𝑥 ቚ − sin 4𝑥 ቤ = −2 − 4 − 4 − sin(−8) + sin(8)
2 2 2
2 2

𝑓 −2 = sin 8 − 10
(𝑎) 𝑔(2) = −𝜋
𝑥 𝑥

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(2) + න 𝑔′(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝜋 + න 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2 2

𝑏 𝑔 𝜋 = −𝜋 + න 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ≈ −1.169
2

(𝑐) 𝑔(𝜋) = −𝜋 + න 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ≈ −7.378

2
 𝑡
14
𝑊(𝑡) = 𝑊(0) + න 𝑊′(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 ⟹ 𝑊(14) = 180 + 𝑊(𝑡)ቚ
0
0

7𝜋
𝑊(14) = 180 + 10 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ≈ 172.930
4

𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒? 𝑤ℎ𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑑?