Ronnee Yashon

Michael Cummings

Chapter 9
Forensics
 Central Points
 DNA testing can determine identity

 DNA profiles are constructed in specialized

laboratories

 DNA profiles used in courts

 Ancestry can be determined by testing DNA

 Can refuse to give sample to the police

 Case A: DNA Frightens Victim

Margaret was attacked and beaten

ID William in a line up by his “eyes”

Williamclaimed innocence but was convicted

and sentenced to 25 years

New DNA testing using PCR could be used

 9.1 How Is DNA Tested?

Dr. Alec Jeffreys

 In 1975, developed DNA fingerprinting to

compare DNA profiles from different individuals

 Used in criminal investigations

 9.2 DNA Profile (DNA Fingerprint)

 Variations in:
 Minisatellites - are repeated sequences of 10-100 base pairs that are used
for developing DNA profiles

 Short tandem repeats (STRs) - are repeating sequences

of 2-6 base pairs of DNA.

 Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) -

is a DNA sequence variation occurring when a single nucleotide — A, T, C or G — in the
genome (or other shared sequence) differs between members of a biological species

 Variations for DNA profile and ID individuals

 The use of scientific knowledge in civil and
criminal law is called forensics
 Used in criminal cases
 STR for DNA Profile
Steps:
1. DNA sample analyzed for STR alleles
present in population members

2. Analyze population frequency, how

often combinations of alleles present

3. Population frequencies for each STR

allele multiplied to estimate probability
 Population Frequency Calculators

Table 9.1 illustrates how to calculate population

frequency as described in the previous slide.
How are DNA Profiles Constructed?

Two common methods:

 Restriction fragment length

polymorphism (RFLP) analysis

 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

RFLP Makes it Possible to ID
Individuals

The picture on the left

illustrates RFLP
analysis.
RFLP Analysis

The figure to
the left
illustrates
RFLP
analysis… it
is defined
further in the
next slide…
Figure 9.3: RFLP Analysis.
DNA is extracted from samples and cut into fragments with a
restriction enzyme. The fragments from each sample are placed
in different lanes on a gel and separated by size using an
electric current. The various fragment sizes reflect differences in
the number of copies of a DNA repeat.
1.DNA is extracted from cells belonging to three different people.
2. Each DNA sample is cut with a specific restriction enzyme.
3.The DNA is loaded into wells in the gel.
4.The gel is immersed in a liquid, and an electric current is applied
across the gel from top to bottom.
5.DNA fragments move through the gel and separate by size.
Smaller fragments migrate furthest to the end of the gel. The
results are a pattern of bands.
6.The DNA bands are visualized on film and analyzed.
Fig 9-3, p. 186
 PCR
 Small amount of DNA sample

Steps in one cycle:

1. DNA placed in solution
2. Heated, double-stranded DNA separates
3. Temperature lowered, primers mixed with
DNA
4. Primers pair with complementary regions
on DNA
5. DNA polymerase uses nucleotides to
synthesize double-stranded DNA molecule
The PCR Method

The figure to the left illustrates the

PCR method… it is described in
detail in the next slide…
Figure 9.5: The PCR Method.
This shows one round of DNA duplication. Most PCR reactions
involve several hundred rounds.
1.DNA is recovered for PCR and processed before being copied.
2. DNA is heated and separated into single strands.
3.Primers are added and bind with complementary regions in the
DNA.
4.Primers serve as starting points for synthesis of new DNA
strands.
5.New double stranded DNA is formed.
6.The amount of target DNA doubles with each PCR cycle.
7.The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) uses DNA polymerase to
amplify a particular stretch of DNA.
8.In PCR, primers are are short nucleotide sequences

Fig. 9-5, p. 186

PCR Can Create Millions of Copies
of DNA

Figure 9.2 PCR can

create one million copies
of DNA after 20 cycles
and one billion copies
after 30 cycles.
1 Original sample
2 One cycle

3 Two cycles

Figure 9.6: Multiple PCR

cycles can create millions of 4 Three cycles
copies of DNA in a short time.
Fig. 9-6, p. 187
Sources of DNA Evidence

At the scene of a crime,

DNA evidence can be
collected from several
sources including:
• Blood
• Hair
• Saliva
•mature red blood cells
cannot be used as a
source for DNA analysis
 DNA Microarrays

 First developed for laboratories for quick

analysis of DNA samples

 Now portable allows analysis at the scene

 Handheld PCR and other devices will

revolutionize crime scene forensic and
medical treatments
 Case A Questions
 Should William get a new trial?

 What are the benefits and challenges of

using DNA profiles?

 How reliable is DNA evidence?

 See the textbook for further questions

about this case
 9.3 DNA Profiling and U.S. Courts

 Landmark case: Frye v. U.S.

 DNA entered U.S. court system in 1989

 Approved for use in courts all over the

country

 Evidence can be challenged

 How Are DNA Profiles Used in
Court?
 Material from crime scene analyzed,
compared to other samples or data base

 Combined DNA Index System

(CODIS) panel of 13 STRs for DNA
profiles

 ~30% of DNA profile results clear

innocent people
DNA Profiles From a Crime Scene

The figure on the left shows

the DNA profile from the blood
stain found at a crime scene as
well as that of seven suspects.
Which suspect was present at
the scene of the crime?
 DNA Databases

 Since 1998, FBI enters DNA profile

from felons

 More than 1,700,000 profiles

 DNA databases becoming important

tools in solving crimes
 8.4 What Are Other Uses for DNA
Profiles?
 Biohistorians used DNA to ID bodies
individuals
 Czar Nicholas II and family

 Remains of military personnel killed in action

 Victims of 9/11 and Katrina

 Paternity identification

 Trace our ancestry

DNA to ID Individuals

The figure above illustrates how

DNA markers can be used to ID
individuals.
 Tracing Ancestry

 Mitochondrial DNA testing

 Maternal inheritance
 Use haplotypes to trace maternal ancestry

 Y chromosome testing
 Y chromosome passed father to son
 Use haplotypes to trace paternal inheritance

 Genographic Project sponsored by

National Geographic Society
 Inheritance of Mitochondrial DNA

The pedigree chart above illustrates mitochondrial inheritance. All

the children of the affected mother will also be affected.
 Inheritance of the Y Chromosome

The pedigree chart above illustrates Y chromosome

inheritance. All the sons of the affected father will also be
affected.
 Case B: Samples Asked of All
 Two women murdered in a small community

 Males > age 17 to provide sample for DNA

dragnet

 Murderer was identified

 What are the important issues in this

request?

 See the textbook for further questions in this

case
 Legal and Ethical Issues and
Forensics?

 Innocence Project
www.innocenceproject.org

 Databases have been constructed for

use in solving crimes

 Using DNA profile for arrest warrants

 Innocent

On the upper right is a picture of Kirk Bloodsworth. His was

the first capital conviction in the US overturned in 1993 as a
result of DNA testing.
 Ethical and Legal Questions

Table 9.3 asks various ethical and legal questions such as:
• Who must give DNA in a DNA database?
• If asked to give a sample in a DNA dragnet, can you refuse?
• Can old evidence be investigated and tested years after the
crime has been committed?
Spotlight on Law: Narborough Village
 In 1989, first case with DNA profile for evidence

 Rape and murder of 2 girls in a English village

 DNA analysis, one man killed both but not

Buckland

 DNA dragnet of > 4,000 men, no match

 Colin Pitchfork did not provide his own sample;

caught because of overheard conversation
Spotlight on Law: Narborough Village
(2)

 Could they have solved this murder

without DNA analysis?

 DNA dragnets not used much in U.S.

Why?

 See the textbook for further questions on

this case
 Important facts

 Analysis of mtDNA or Y chromosomes provides data that

allows people to trace their ancestry.
 DNA profiles have been developed from the remains of dead
people.
 Two common techniques used in DNA forensics are
restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and the
polymerase chain reaction.
 DNA profiles can be prepared from very small DNA samples.
 DNA profile analysis has led to the release of individuals who
were wrongly convicted of crimes.
 DNA is stable and remains intact for years.