Hypothesis is a proposition made as a basis for

reasoning, without any assumption of

its truth.
This is a statement that cannot be
accepted to be true unless proven.

Hypothesis Testing refers to the formal

procedures used by statisticians to
accept or reject statistical hypotheses.
Two Types of Hypotheses:

1. Null hypothesis. The null hypothesis, denoted by H0, is

usually the hypothesis that sample observations result
purely from chance.

2. Alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis,

denoted by H1 or Ha, is the hypothesis that sample
observations are influenced by some non-random cause.
Concepts of Hypothesis Testing
In our judicial system in the prosecution of criminal cases:
“When a person is charged of a crime, the hypothesis
that we can make is that he is presumed innocent until
proven otherwise. The prosecution has now the burden
of proof to gather enough evidence to disprove the
hypothesis and send the person charged of a crime to
jail. On the basis of the evidence presented, the judge
has to render a verdict whether to reject presumption of
innocence or not.”
Concepts of Hypothesis Testing
There are two possible decisions that can be made:

Conclude that there is enough evidence to support the

alternative hypothesis (also stated as: rejecting the null
hypothesis in favor of the alternative)
Conclude that there is not enough evidence to support
the alternative hypothesis (also stated as: not rejecting the
null hypothesis in favor of the alternative)

NOTE: we do not say that we accept the null hypothesis…

 Research Title 1:

“Relationship between Socio-economic Status and

Choice of President”

Ho: There is no significant relationship between socio-economic

status and choice of president.

H1: There is a significant relationship between between socio-

economic status and choice of president.
 Research Title 2:

“A Comparative Study on the Level of Satisfaction on DSWD

Program Among the Barangay Beneficiaries ”
Ho: There is no significant difference on the level of satisfaction on
DSWD program among the barangay beneficiaries.
H1: There is a significant difference on the level of satisfaction on
DSWD program among the barangay beneficiaries.
H1: The level of satisfaction on DSWD program of Barangay A is
higher than that of Barangay B.
H1: The level of satisfaction on DSWD program of Barangay A is
lower than that of Barangay B.
1. Which of the following statements is an appropriate null
hypothesis?

a) The mean of a population is equal to 60.

b) The mean of a sample is equal to 60.
c) The mean of a population is not equal to 60.
d) All of these choices are true.
Types of Alternative Hypothesis:
1) Directional or predictive
2) Non-directional or non-
predictive

Types of Tests:
1) One-tailed Test – a test of
statistical hypothesis where the
region of rejection is on only
one side of the sampling
distribution.
1) Two-tailed Test – a test of
statistical hypothesis where the
region of rejection is on both side
of the sampling distribution.
2. Which of the following statements exhibits a non-predictive
alternative hypothesis?

a) H1: µ = µo
b) H1: µ ≠ µo
c) H1: µ > µo
d) H1: µ < µo
Concepts of Hypothesis Testing

Two possible errors can be

made in any test:

A Type I error occurs

when we reject a true null
hypothesis and
A Type II error occurs
when we don’t reject a false
null hypothesis.
3. What type of error is committed by the researcher if the
sample data caused him to reject HO where it is true in the
population?

a) Type I b) Type II c) Type III d) Type IV

4. In a criminal trial, which of the following decisions of the

judge where he made Type I error?

a) a guilty defendant is acquitted

b) an innocent person is convicted
c) a guilty defendant is convicted
d) an innocent person is acquitted
 Concepts of Hypothesis Testing
Level of significance
is the maximum probability of committing a type I error. This
probability is symbolized by α (Greek letter alpha).
The probability of a type II error is symbolized by β, the Greek
letter beta.
In most hypothesis-testing situations, β cannot be easily
computed; however, α and β are related in that decreasing
one increases the other.
Statisticians generally agree on using three arbitrary
significance levels: the 0.10, 0.05, and 0.01 levels.
Methods Used to Test Hypothesis

1) p-Value of a Test
The p-value of a test provides a measure of how much
statistical evidence exists to support the alternative hypothesis.
Interpreting the p-value
 If the p-value is less than 1%, there is overwhelming
evidence that supports the alternative hypothesis.

 If the p-value is between 1% and 5%, there is a strong

evidence that supports the alternative hypothesis.

 If the p-value is between 5% and 10% there is a weak

evidence that supports the alternative hypothesis.

 If the p-value exceeds 10%, there is no evidence that

supports the alternative hypothesis.
Conclusions of a Test of Hypothesis

If we reject the null hypothesis, we conclude that there

is enough evidence to infer that the alternative hypothesis is
true.
If we do not reject the null hypothesis, we conclude
that there is not enough statistical evidence to infer that the
alternative hypothesis is true.

Remember: The alternative hypothesis is the more important

one. It represents what we are investigating.
Interpreting the p-value
Overwhelming Evidence
(Highly Significant)
Strong Evidence
(Significant)

Weak Evidence
(Not Significant)

No Evidence
(Not Significant)

0 .01 .05 .10

p-value=.0359
Interpreting the p-value

Compare the p-value with the selected value of the

significance level:
If the p-value is less than α, we judge the p-value to be
small enough and thereby we to reject the null hypothesis.
If the p-value is greater than α, we do not reject the null
hypothesis.

Since p-value = .0359 < α = .05, we reject H0 in favor of H1

Methods Used to Test Hypothesis

2) Traditional (Manual Calculations)

Steps in Hypothesis Testing
1) Formulate the null and alternative hypotheses.
2) Determine the level of significance of the study.
3) Determine the critical value of the test statistics.
4) Compute the value of the test statistics.
5) Make decision.
“Reject H0 if the absolute computed value of the test
statistics is greater than the absolute critical value.
Otherwise, do not reject H0.”
5. What shall be your decision on HO if the absolute computed
value of the test statistics is greater than the absolute critical
value?
a) do not reject
b) reject
c) neither accept nor reject
d) need further test
The z-test and t-test
These test statistics are used for quantitative data. They are
used to compare sample mean with population mean or are
used to compare between two sample means.
1) Testing the Population Mean: Population Standard
Deviation is known. Use the z-test.
2) Testing the Population Mean: Population Standard
Deviation is Not known. If the sample size is large (n
30), use z-test.
3) Testing the Population Mean: Population Standard
Deviation is Not known and Small Sample. Use t-test.
The z-test and t-test
4) Two Sample Test: Independent Samples – if a sample
taken from one population is unrelated with another sample
taken from another population.

5) Two Sample Test: Dependent Samples – also called

paired sample, if each element or member of one sample is
paired or match with an element or member in the other
sample.
6. A researcher refutes the claim that the average income
of households in Barangay Makopa is P12,000 . She
thinks it is more than that. Which hypotheses are used
to test the claim?

a) H0: µ ≠ P12,000 vs. H1: µ > P12,000

b) H0: µ = P12,000 vs. H1: µ > P12,000
c) H0: µ ≠ P12,000 vs. H1: µ = P12,000
d) H0: µ = P12,000 vs. H1: µ < P12,000
7. A political analyst surveys a random sample of registered
voters from District 1 in Davao City and compares the
results with those obtained from a random sample of
registered voters from District 2. This would be an example
of what type of test?

a) independent samples
b) independent samples only if the sample sizes are equal
c) dependent samples
d) dependent samples only if the sample sizes are equal
8. Which of the following assumptions can be done for the
t-test for the difference between the means of two
independent populations?

a) sample sizes are equal.

b) populations are normal.
c) means are equal
d) All of these choices are true.
 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
• is a statistical technique that is intended to analyze
variability in data in order to infer the inequality among
population means.
• The purpose of ANOVA is much the same as the t – tests;
that is, to determine whether the mean differences that are
obtained for sample data are sufficiently large to justify a
conclusion that there are mean differences between the
populations from which the samples were obtained.
• The difference between ANOVA and the t – tests is that
ANOVA can be used in situations where there are two or
more means being compared, whereas the t – tests are
limited to situations where only two means are involved.
 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Illustration. Consider an experiment in which three variances of

rice are planted on several plots of equal size and their
yields per plot were recorded.
Denorado Milagrosa Masipag
One-Way 56 55 48
Classification 45 50 56
55 49 53
48 51 54
46 53 52
53 48 50
Mean 50.5 51.0 52.17
 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Illustration. Consider an experiment in which three variances of
rice are planted on several plots of equal size and their
yields per plot were recorded. If we consider the type
of fertilizer used, we have the table below.
Fertilizer Denorado Milagrosa Masipag Mean
Two-Way
Classification F1 48 55 48 50.3
F2 45 50 52 49.0
F3 55 49 53 52.3
F4 48 51 54 51.0
F5 46 53 52 50.3
Mean 48.4 51.6 51.8
 Analysis of
Variance

One-Way Classification

• Random samples of size n are selected from each of k

populations. It will be assumed that the k populations are
independent and normally distributed with means 1, 2, …, k
and common variance 2. We wish to derive appropriate
methods for testing the hypothesis

H0 : 1 = 2 = … = k
H1 : at least two of the means are not equal.
9. Which of the following is NOT a required condition for
one-way ANOVA?
a) The sample sizes must be equal.
b) The populations must all be normally distributed.
c) The population variances must be equal.
d) The samples for each treatment must be selected
randomly and independently.
10. One-way ANOVA is applied to independent samples
taken from three normally distributed populations with
equal variances. Which of the following is the null
hypothesis for this procedure?

a) H0: μ1 + μ 2 + μ 3 = 0
b) H0: μ1 + μ 2 + μ 3 ≠ 0
c) H0: μ1 = μ 2 = μ 3 = 0
d) H0: μ1 = μ 2 = μ 3
 Measures of Relationship
o Statistics are widely used in the social sciences in
making predictions which are based upon the fact
that two variables are related.
o The process of obtaining the measure of the degree
of relationship or association between variables is
called correlation analysis.
o When a known measure of one variable is used to
make estimates of a second variable, the process is
known as regression analysis.
 Regression Analysis
o Regression analysis is the process by which one
variable Y is predicted from another variable X.
o The variable Y is called the dependent variable and
X is called the independent variable or the predictor.

llustration. Predicting the level of satisfaction of IP and the

extent of the implementation of the program.

Independent variable = extent of implementation

Dependent variable = level of satisfaction
 Linear Regression
o this linear relationship can be expressed in an
equation of the form
Y = a + bx

where Y = predicted score

a = the y-intercept
b = the slope of the line
 Scatter Diagram
o Visual representation of the relationship between
two variables. In this method, values of the two
variables are plotted on a two-dimensional
coordinate system.

A line could be fitted and we A curve instead of a line will

could conclude that there is a fit the plotted points, so that
linear relationship between we can say that there is a non-
the two variables. linear relationship.
 Method of Least Square
o The line obtained by the method of least square is
known as the regression line and also referred to as
the line of best fit.
Y = a + bx
n XY   X  Y
where b
n X    X 
2
2

a
 Y  X 
b   Y  bX
n  n 
 Correlation Analysis
o Correlation analysis is used to measure the linear
relationship or association between two variables.
o The measure of the degree of association between
two variables is known as the coefficient of
correlation (r).
o The value of r varies from –1 to +1. This can
expressed in the interval – 1 ≤ r ≤≤ 1.
o For perfectly positive correlation, r = 1, while in a
perfectly negative correlation, r = –1 .
o If r = 0, then there is no linear relation existing
between the two variables.
 Correlation Analysis
o A positive correlation is present when high values in one
variable are associated with high values of another variable or
vice versa.
o On the other hand, when high values on one variable are
associated with low values of the other variable or vice versa,
a negative correlation is present.
 Correlation Analysis
o The degree of linear relationship can be interpreted
by using the following range of values:
Range of Value of r Description
0.90 to 1.00 or (-0.90 to -1.00) Very high positive (negative) correlation
0.70 to 0.89 or (-0.70 to -0.89) High positive (negative) correlation
0.50 to 0.69 or (-0.50 to -0.69) Moderate positive (negative) correlation
0.30 to 0.49 or (-0.30 to -0.49) Low positive (negative) correlation
0.00 to 0.29 or ( 0.00 to -0.29) Little, if any correlation
 Correlation Analysis
Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
o is a measure of the linear correlation (dependence) between
two variables X and Y, giving a value between +1 and −1
inclusive, where 1 is total positive correlation, 0 is no
correlation, and −1 is total negative correlation.
o is widely used in the sciences as a measure of the degree of
linear dependence between two variables. It was developed
by Karl Pearson from a related idea introduced by Francis
Galton in the 1880s.

n XY   X  Y
Pearson r 
n X 2   x 2  n Y 2   Y 2 
       
11. Assuming that a linear relationship exists between Age
(X) and Job Satisfaction (Y), if the coefficient of
correlation (r) equals -0.95, what does this means?
a) there is very weak correlation.
b) if the value of X is low, the value of Y is high.
c) the value of X is always greater than the value of Y.
d) if the value of X is high, so as the value of Y.
12. A regression analysis between weight (y in pounds)
and height (x in inches) resulted in the following least
squares line: y = 120 + 5x. This implies that if the height
is increased by 1 inch, the weight is expected to which of
the following?
a) increase by 1 pound.
b) decrease by 1 pound.
c) increase by 5 pounds.
d) increase by 24 pounds.
13. In the simple linear regression model, what does the y-
intercept represents?
a) change in y per unit change in x.
b) change in x per unit change in y.
c) value of y when x = 0.
d) value of x when y = 0.

14. In the least squares regression line y = 3 – 2x, what is

the predicted value of y equal to?
a) 1.0 when x = -1.0 b) 2.0 when x = 1.0
c) 2.0 when x = -1.0 d) 1.0 when x = 1.0
15. If all the points in a scatter diagram lie on the least
squares regression line, what must be the coefficient of
correlation equal to?
a) 1.0 b) -1.0
c) either 1.0 or -1.0 d) 0.0
Parametric vs. Non-Parametric Tests
• Parametric tests assume that the data has come from a type
of probability distribution and makes inferences about
the parameters of the distribution. Most well-known elementary
statistical methods are parametric.
• Nonparametric tests are sometimes called distribution-free
tests because they are based on fewer assumptions (e.g., they do not
assume that the outcome is approximately normally distributed).
Parametric vs. Non-Parametric Tests
There are two types of test data and consequently different
types of analysis. As the table below shows, parametric data
has an underlying normal distribution which allows for more
conclusions to be drawn as the shape can be mathematically
described. Anything else is non-parametric.
Parametric Non-parametric

Assumed distribution Normal Any

Assumed variance Homogeneous Any

Typical data Ratio or Interval Ordinal or Nominal

Data set relationships Independent Any

Usual central measure Mean Median

Simplicity; Less affected by

Benefits Can draw more conclusions
outliers
The Chi-Square Test, χ2
• The chi-square test is not based on the assumption of a normal
distribution in the population.
• It is used as a test of significance when the data are expressed in
frequencies, or are in terms of percentages or proportions that can
be reduced to frequencies.
• Most of the application of the chi-square are with discrete data.
However, it may also be used to any continuous data that can be
reduced to categories and the data are tabulated.
The Chi-Square Test, χ2
• In order to use the chi-square statistic,
a) the data must be independent, that is, no response is related to
any other responses,
b) that a frequency may be placed in one and only one category, &
c) all data must be used.
The Chi-Square Test, χ2
• There are three types of chi-square test:

1) Goodness-of- Fit Test

2) Test for Homogeneity
3) Test for Independence

All these tests are however similar in that they provide decision-
making information about the population and all are based upon the
difference between the observed sample frequencies and some
expected or theoretical frequencies of a population.
The Chi-Square Test, χ2
The Test for Goodness - of – Fit
To determine if a set of observed data corresponds to some
theoretical distribution, a chi-square goodness-of-fit test is
performed. It is used to determine whether a set of observed
frequencies of one variable is the same as the expected frequencies
on the same variable.
The basic formula for the chi-square is

 OF  EF 
2

 
2

EF

where OF = observed frequency

EF = expected frequency
The Chi-Square Test, χ2
Degrees of Freedom
The number of degrees of freedom is based on the number of cells in
the contingency table. The formula for degrees of freedom is
df = (c – 1)(r – 1)
where c is the number of columns and r is the number of rows in the
contingency table.
If c = 1, df = (r – 1) or if r = 1, df = (c – 1)

To obtain the critical value for the chi-square, use the chi-square
distribution table. The tabular value can be obtained by getting
the intersection of the level of significance and the degrees of
freedom.
The Chi-Square Test, χ2
Computing Expected Frequencies

Total Row
Observed A B C X
Frequency D E F Y
G H I Z
Total Column Q R S T

Total Row
Expected QX/T RX/T SX/T X
QY/T RY/T SY/T Y
Frequency
QZ/T RZ/T SY/T Z
Total Column Q R S T
Other Non-Parametric Tests

Tests
Choosing a non-
Choosing Choosing parametric test
parametric test
Correlation test Pearson Spearman
Independent measures,
Independent-measures t-test Mann-Whitney test
2 groups
Independent measures, One-way, independent-
Kruskal-Wallis test
>2 groups measures ANOVA
Repeated measures,
Matched-pair t-test Wilcoxon test
2 conditions
Repeated measures, One-way, repeated
Friedman's test
>2 conditions measures ANOVA
Other Non-Parametric Tests
Spearman's rank correlation coefficient or Spearman's
rho,
• named after Charles Spearman and often denoted by the
Greek letter ρ (rho), is a non-parametric measure of
statistical dependence between two variables.
• It assesses how well the relationship between two variables
can be described using a monotonic function.
• Spearman's coefficient, like any correlation calculation, is
appropriate for both continuous and discrete variables,
including ordinal variables.
• The Spearman correlation coefficient is defined as
the Pearson correlation coefficient between the ranked
variables.
Other Non-Parametric Tests
Mann–Whitney U test
• is a non-parametric test of the null hypothesis that two
populations are the same against an alternative hypothesis,
especially that a particular population tends to have larger
values than the other.
• It has greater efficiency than the t-test on non-normal
distributions, such as a mixture of normal distributions, and it
is nearly as efficient as the t-test on normal distributions.
• It was named after Henry Berthold Mann and Donald
Ransom Whitney.
Other Non-Parametric Tests
Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks
(named after William Kruskal and W. Allen Wallis) is a non-
parametric method for testing whether samples originate
from the same distribution.
• It is used for comparing two or more samples that are
independent, and that may have different sample sizes, and
extends the Mann-Whitney U test to more than two groups.
• The parametric equivalent of the Kruskal-Wallis test is
the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Other Non-Parametric Tests
Wilcoxon signed-rank test
• is a non-parametric statistical hypothesis test used when
comparing two related samples, matched samples, or
repeated measurements on a single sample to assess
whether their population mean ranks differ (i.e. it is a paired
difference test).
• It can be used as an alternative to the paired Student t-
test, t-test for matched pairs, or the t-test for dependent
samples when the population cannot be assumed to
be normally distributed.
• The test is named for Frank Wilcoxon (1892–1965) who, in a
single paper, proposed both it and the rank-sum test for two
independent samples .
Other Non-Parametric Tests
Friedman test
• is a non-parametric statistical test developed by
the U.S. economist Milton Friedman.
• Similar to the parametric repeated measures ANOVA, it is
used to detect differences in treatments across multiple test
attempts.
• The procedure involves ranking each row (or block) together,
then considering the values of ranks by columns.
16. A researcher read that firearm-related deaths for
people aged 1 to 18 were distributed as follows: 74%
were accidental, 16% were homicides, and 10% were
suicides. In her city, there were 68 accidental deaths,
27 homicides, and 5 suicides during the past year. What
statistical test she should use if she wants to test the
claim that the percentages are equal?
a) t-test on dependent sample
b) Anova
c) chi-square
d) pearson r
17. In a large department store, the owner wishes to see
whether the number of shoplifting incidents per day will
change if the number of uniformed security officers is
doubled. The number of shoplifting incidents were
recorded 7 days before security was increased and 7
days after the increased. The owner wants to find out if
there is a difference in the number of shoplifting
incidents before and after the increase in security.
What test will he perform?
a) Kruskal=-Wallis b) Spearman rho
c) Mann-Whitney d) Wilcoxon signed-rank test
Research
 a scientific investigation of phenomena which includes
collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of
facts that links man’s speculation with reality.

 is a study to create new knowledge or to add to the

existing store house of knowledge, may it be through
observation or by any other methods.
Social Work Research
 is the application of research methods to solve problems
that social workers confront in the practice of social work.
 involves the study of concepts, principles, theories
underlying social work methods and skills.
 is the study of the relationship of social workers with their
clients, such as the individuals, groups or communities on
various levels of interaction as well as their natural
relationships and functioning within the organizational
structure of social agencies.
Reasons for Studying Research

 Becoming an informed research consumer.

 Finding out about your practice.
 Participating in the policy process.
 Undertaking postgraduate education.
 Developing social work knowledge and theory.
 Practicing in an ethically responsible manner.
Characteristics of Research
 Empirical – Research is based on direct experience or
observation by the researcher.
 Logical – Research is based on valid procedures and
principles.
 Cyclical – Research starts with a problem and ends with a
problem.
 Analytical – Research utilizes proven analytical
procedures in gathering the data.
 Replicability – Research designs and procedures are
replicated to enable researcher to arrive at valid and
conclusive results.
 Critical – Research exhibits careful and precise judgment;
that is, a higher level of confidence must be established.
18. Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
Scientific investigation is done in an orderly manner so
that the researcher has confidence on the results. What
characteristic of research is this?

a) analytical
b) logical
c) cyclical
d) empirical
Types of Research

 Pure research – also called basic research or fundamental

research which aims to discover basic truths and
principles.
 Applied research – involves seeking new applications of
scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem.
 Action research – is a decision-oriented research
involving the application of the steps of the scientific
method in response to an immediate need to improve
existing practices.
19. What type of research that is decision-oriented
involving the application of the steps of the scientific
method in response to an immediate need to improve
existing practices?
a) pure research
b) basic research
c) applied research
d) action research
Variable
 is defined as a quantity or a characteristic that has two or
more mutually exclusive values of properties. Numerical
values or categories represent these quantities or
characteristics.
Types of Variable
1) Independent Variable – this is the stimulus variable
which is chosen by the researcher to determine its
relationship to an observed phenomenon.

2) Dependent Variable – this the response variable which is

observed and measured to determine the effect of the
independent variable.
Variable
3) Moderate Variable – this is a secondary or special type
of variable chosen by the researcher to ascertain if it
alters or modifies the relationships between the IV and
DV.

4) Control Variable – is variable controlled by the

researcher in which the effects can be neutralized by
eliminating or removing the variable.

5) Intervening Variable – is a variable which interferes with

the independent and dependent variables, but its effects
can either strengthen or weaken the IV and DV.
20. What type of variable that is also called a response
variable which is observed and measured to determine
the effect of another variable?
a) independent
b) dependent
c) moderate
d) control
Types of Major Research Approaches
Quantitative Research
 This type of research is based on the idea that there is an
objective ‘reality’ which can be accurately measured, and
which operates according to natural laws which can be
‘discovered’ by rigorous, objective research.
 Quantitative researchers typically use techniques such as
surveys, questionnaires and structured observations.
 Using statistics, they analyze the information they have
collected to see if their ideas about patterns or
relationships are supported by ‘the facts’ as revealed in
their research.
Types of Major Research Approaches
Quantitative Research
 Examples of quantitative research
• The census
• Large opinion polls
• Some forms of evaluation, e.g. outcome evaluations,
cost–benefit analyses
• Research which aims to establish whether there is a
relationship between two or more variables, e.g. Is there
a relationship between income and religion?
Types of Major Research Approaches
Qualitative Research
 Instead of beginning with theories of patterns or
relationships and testing them in the ‘real world’, qualitative
researchers prefer to start the other way around and begin
with their experiences or specific observations. They begin
their research with no preconceived ideas, and allow the
patterns or themes to emerge from their experiences.
 From careful observations, immersion in the world of the
‘researched’, in-depth interviews, and a range of other
techniques, qualitative researchers build their theories from
the patterns they observe in their data (sometimes called
‘grounded theory’) thus, their approach is inductive.
Types of Major Research Approaches
Qualitative Research
 Examples of qualitative research
• A researcher spends several months ‘hanging around’
with a gang of ‘street kids’ to investigate their lifestyle and
the issues that are important to them (participant
observation).
• In-depth interviews are conducted with rural women and
workers from relevant agencies to explore attitudes to
domestic violence in the country.
• Observations of council meetings and interviews with
local councilors are conducted to examine how they
perceive ‘grass roots democracy’.
Types of Major Research Approaches
Emancipatory Approach
 They view society as being full of contradictions and
tensions between dominant and oppressed groups,
between those who impose their reality on others and
those who are the ‘other’.
 In this view, people are shaped by external forces
operating in the interests of the powerful (similar to the
assumptions of universal objective laws of quantitative
researchers), but may also be aware of their oppression
and attempt to resist the dominant group’s version of
‘reality’ (similar to the beliefs about the importance of
subjectivity of qualitative researchers).
Types of Major Research Approaches
Feminist Research
 Like other forms of emancipatory research, feminist
research is characterized by its goals rather than its
methods.
 As an approach to research, it is in a stage of lively
evolution.
 For example, feminist researchers highlighted the ‘gender-
blindness’ of official statistics which made it impossible to
determine the status and condition of women separately
from the male ‘head of the house’.
Types of Major Research Approaches
Feminist Research
 Four assumptions of feminist research
• All knowledge is socially constructed.
• The dominant ideology is that of the ruling group.
• There is no such thing as value-free science and so far
the social sciences have served and reflected men’s
interests.
• The perspectives of men and women differ because
people’s perspectives vary systematically with their
position in society.
Types of Major Research Approaches
 Examples of feminist research
• A researcher holds conversations with rural women over
several months to discuss and write up their experiences
of farming and attitudes towards these experiences.
• A women’s support group collects statistics and evidence
about how domestic violence is dealt with in their region
compared to other types of violence, in order to raise
community awareness and to lobby for a women’s refuge.
• A social welfare worker involves her colleagues in a study
of their daily work practices to analyze the similarities
between social work and traditional ‘women’s work’.
Types of Major Research Approaches
Postmodern Research
 Instead of certainties and ‘realities’ which can be
scientifically explored, postmodernism asserts that ‘truth’ or
knowledge is created through language and meanings and
is different for different people, depending on their
experiences.
 Thus, instead of a single, knowable reality, postmodernist
researchers speak of a plurality of voices, each with its
own locally constructed reality.
 No single reality is more valid than another—indeed,
diversity and difference should be celebrated.
21. A researcher spends several months ‘hanging around’
with a gang of ‘street kids’ to investigate their lifestyle
and the issues that are important to them is an example
of what type of research approach?

a) quantitative research
b) emancipatory approach
c) qualitative research
d) postmodern research
The Ethics of Research
Five ethical criteria for research
 Autonomy/self-determination (includes informed consent
and confidentiality)
 Non-maleficence (not doing harm)
 Beneficence (doing good)
 Justice (are the purposes just?)
 Positive contribution to knowledge
22. What ethical criteria of research that requires the
researchers not to harm their subjects in any way,
instead, to do some good, or to be of benefit, to the
people who are being researched?

a) autonomy/self determination
b) non-maleficence/beneficence
c) principles of justice or fairness
d) positive contribution to knowledge
Steps in the Research Process
 Defining the problem
 Choosing the methodology
 Reviewing the literature
 Preparation
 Research design:
• Sampling
• Data collection
• Administration
• Data analysis
• Reporting
 Conducting the research
 Disseminating the findings
Steps in the Research Process
 DEFINING THE PROBLEM
• In any research you must define your problem, note the
dimensions of the issue, the target group affected, the
political context, and the anticipated outcomes.
• Decide whether your research is to be exploratory,
descriptive or explanatory.
• Remember that your topic must be relevant, researchable,
feasible and ethical.
• A good research problem is characterized by the acronym
‘SMART’:
Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bounded
23. A good research problem is characterized by the
acronym ‘SMART’. What does this stands for?

a) Simple, Manageable, Achievable, Realistic, and Time-

bound
b) Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and Time-
bound
c) Simple, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, and Time-
bound
d) Specific, Manageable, Attainable, Realistic, and Time-
bound
Steps in the Research Process
 METHODOLOGY
 This include quantitative and qualitative approaches.
 A quantitative methodology would be most useful where
you have extensive knowledge of the environment or
situation you wish to study and are looking to test
hypotheses about relationships between variables and to
make statistical inferences from your quantifiable data.
Quantitative research is generally about testing theory.
Steps in the Research Process
 METHODOLOGY
 A qualitative methodology enables you to further your
knowledge of the situation when seeking to describe social
reality.
 An emancipatory approach, using quantitative and/or
qualitative methodologies, would be appropriate if you wish
to conduct research that centralizes the concerns of
marginalized or disempowered people. You should be
aware that you might choose a combination of approaches
if this best suits your study.
Steps in the Research Process
 LITERATURE REVIEW
 Conducting a literature review is a vital part of your
research. If you have prepared a research proposal you
will have already read widely.
 A literature review allows you to discover what knowledge
is already available about the issue you wish to investigate,
to determine how your study will differ from existing work
and hence add to our knowledge in the area, and it
enables you to conceptually frame your work.
Steps in the Research Process
LITERATURE REVIEW
 Older works are not necessarily inferior and you should
consider references which are classical representations of
new ideas or groundbreaking developments.
 Essentially, your literature review should indicate that you
are up-to-date with current thinking in the area of study.
24. A vital part of the research process which allows the
researcher to discover what knowledge is already
available about the issue to investigate and to
determine how the study will differ from existing work.
a) defining the problem
b) methodology
c) research design
d) literature review
Steps in the Research Process
 PREPARATION
 Once you have defined your topic and analyzed and
reviewed the literature, you have a number of tasks to
undertake before you can launch into the research.
 Funding the project will be an issue for any piece of
research. You should develop a research proposal for your
agency or for a funding body.
Steps in the Research Process
PREPARATION
 A further issue which must be dealt with during this
preparatory stage is seeking ethics approval from the
ethics committee at your agency, your university or the
funding body.
 You should also spend some time discussing the proposed
research with experienced researchers, colleagues and
friends in order to help you develop a suitable design and
to gain the benefit of others’ experience.
Steps in the Research Process
RESEARCH DESIGN
 Having defined your problem, chosen your methodology,
reviewed the literature and completed the preparatory
stages, you must now develop an appropriate research
design.
 A research design indicates how your data will be
collected, analyzed and reported and includes the types of
sampling, methods of data collection and analysis to be
used.
 Your design is a plan of action which indicates how you
propose to research the defined problem and is necessarily
shaped by the problem and the methodology.
Research Design
Kinds of Research Design
 Historical design is a systematic and critical inquiry of the
whole truth of past events using the critical method in the
understanding and the interpretation of facts which are
applicable to current issues and problems.

 Descriptive design – the study focuses at the present

condition. The purpose is to find new truth. The truth may
have different forms such as increased quantity of
knowledge, a new generalization or a new law, an
increased insight into factors which are operating, the
discovery of a new causal relationship, a more accurate
formulation of the problem to be solved and many others.
Research Design
Kinds of Research Design
 Experimental design is a problem-solving approach that
the study is described in the future on what will be when
certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated.

 Case Study design – is a problem solving technique that

the study is described from the past, present, and future. It
is n intensive investigation of a particular individual,
institution, community, or any group considered as a unit
which includes the developmental, adjustment, remedial, or
corrective procedures that suitably follow diagnosis of the
causes of maladjustment or of favorable development.
25. What kind of research design that is being described as
a systematic and critical inquiry of the whole truth of
past events using the critical method in the
understanding and the interpretation of facts which are
applicable to current issues and problems?
a) historical design
b) descriptive design
c) experimental design
d) case study design
Steps in the Research Process
RESEARCH DESIGN
o Sampling
Both qualitative and quantitative researchers employ
sampling techniques.
However, quantitative researchers employ probability
sampling and so claim representativeness. Qualitative
researchers eschew representativeness, claiming that
non-probability techniques are more useful for assessing
the social reality in which they are interested.
Steps in the Research Process
RESEARCH DESIGN
o Data collection
 The way you go about collecting your data is equally as
important as the way you draw up your sample.
 While data collection methods will vary according to the
type of information you are seeking, the research
question and the resources at your disposal, there are no
right or wrong methods for a given situation or a given
methodology.
Steps in the Research Process
RESEARCH DESIGN
o Administration
Conducting any piece of research creates a significant
amount of administrative work. Your plan should note the
administrative arrangements that will be put in place to
ensure the success of your method/s.
Steps in the Research Process
RESEARCH DESIGN
o Administration
Administrative tasks include
• Materials organized
• Access to equipment arranged
• Assistants recruited and trained
• Interviews or access to the situation organized
• Travel and accommodation booked
• Data storage security arranged
• Ethical issues resolved
Steps in the Research Process
RESEARCH DESIGN
o Data analysis
The success or failure of any research endeavor lies in
the researcher’s ability to work with the data and to
actively generate understandable theoretical arguments.
The way your data are to be analyzed is an integral stage
of any research and should be planned carefully.
Steps in the Research Process
RESEARCH DESIGN
o Data analysis
If you have conducted a quantitative survey and have
data requiring statistical analysis, you may need to
employ an analyst or purchase appropriate computer
software and seek relevant training.
A qualitative research study produces vast amounts of
new data, often unstructured, which must be coded,
categorized and analyzed.
Steps in the Research Process
RESEARCH DESIGN
o Reporting
The final section of your plan will detail how you propose
to report your findings. What is the most appropriate
medium to allow you to widely disseminate your findings
so that they have maximum impact on the situation which
led you to do the research in the first place?
You might decide that this is an interdepartmental report,
a conference paper, a journal article, a book or a
newspaper article.
Steps in the Research Process
 CONDUCTING THE RESEARCH
o Your plan should be comprehensive so that no surprises
emerge during the execution phase.
o Follow the plan you have developed, allowing some
flexibility for the unforeseen issues that may arise.
o The execution phase takes a great deal of time and
represents the major commitment in terms of time, energy
and focus.
o Do not be discouraged if your data do not support your
position or if your research plan must be reassessed.
Steps in the Research Process
CONDUCTING THE RESEARCH
 Negative or non-significant findings are just as valuable as
findings showing a significant relationship or positive effect.
 If people do not publicize such findings, the research
community and the profession may be left with a distorted
picture of the existing situation.
 The experience you gain is important, and your findings will
contribute to the knowledge base of our profession
regardless of whether or not they are earth-shattering
revelations.
Steps in the Research Process
 DISSEMINATING THE FINDINGS
o Research should be viewed as having three equally
important stages: the preparation phase, the execution
phase and the dissemination stage.
o Your research findings may have the potential to
completely change our thinking on a particular issue.
o Research reports should be written clearly and concisely in
a way that interests the audience by avoiding jargon and
masses of superfluous information.