Chapter 4 Tissues

TISSUES
CHAPTER 4 – HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

ALBERT FRANCIS K. TIRADO
CHAPTER SECTIONS
1. Tissues and Histology
2. Epithelial Tissue
3. Connective Tissue
4. Muscle Tissue
5. Nervous Tissue
6. Tissue Membranes
CHAPTER SECTIONS
7. Tissue Damage and Inflammation
8. Tissue Repair
9. Effects of Aging on Tissues
TISSUES AND HISTOLOGY
SECTION 4-1
LEARNING OUTCOME
▪ Describe the general makeup of a tissue
Section 4-1. Tissues and Histology

▪ A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure and function that
have similar extracellular substances located between them
▪ Histology is the microscopic study of tissue structure
▪ Why is the study of tissues important?
▪ Knowledge of tissue structure and function is important in
understanding how individual cells are organized to form tissues
and how tissues are organized to form organs, organ systems, and
the complete organism

▪ Changes in tissues can result in development, growth, aging, trauma,
or disease
▪ The four basic types of tissue are the following:
1. Epithelial tissue or epithelium
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
SECTION 4-2
LEARNING OUTCOME
▪ List and explain the general characteristics of epithelial tissue
▪ Classify epithelial tissues based on the number of cell layers and the
shape of the cells
▪ Name and describe the various types of epithelial tissue, including
their chief functions and locations
▪ Relate the structural specializations of epithelial tissue with the
functions they perform
Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

LEARNING OUTCOME
▪ Differentiate between exocrine and endocrine glands, and unicellular
and multicellular glands
▪ Categorize glands based on their structure and function

CHARACTERISTICS OF EPITHELIUM
▪ Epithelium or epithelial tissue covers external and internal surfaces
throughout the body
▪ It covers surfaces of the body which include the outer layer of the skin
and the lining of cavities, such as the digestive tract, airways, and
blood vessels
▪ It also forms most glands
▪ It consists almost entirely of cells with very little extracellular material
between them
▪ Epithelia have a free surface, which is not in contact with other cells,
and a basal surface adjacent to a basement membrane

CHARACTERISTICS OF EPITHELIUM
▪ Epithelium may consist of a single layer of epithelial cells or multiple
layers of epithelial cells between the free surface and the basement
membrane
▪ Avascular, since blood vessels do not extend from underlying tissues
into the epithelium
▪ The basement membrane, which is secreted partly by epithelial cells
and partly by the cells of the underlying tissues, attaches the
epithelial cells to underlying tissues
▪ The basement membrane functions as a filter and as a barrier to the
movement of cells

FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIUM
▪ Protecting underlying structures
▪ Epidermis of the skin and epithelium of oral cavity protect the
underlying structures from abrasion
▪ Acting as a barrier
▪ Epidermis of the skin acts as a barrier to water and reduces water
loss from the body
▪ Permitting the passage of substances
▪ Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the air and
blood by diffusion through the epithelium in the lungs

FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIUM
▪ Secreting substances
▪ Sweat glands, mucus glands, and the enzyme-secreting portion of
the pancreas are all composed of epithelial cells
▪ Absorbing substances
▪ The presence of carrier proteins in the cell membranes of epithelial
cells of the small intestines absorb digested food, molecules,
vitamins, and irons

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA
▪ Epithelia are classified according to the number of cell layers and
shape of the component cells
▪ Simple
▪ Squamous
▪ Cuboidal
▪ Columnar
▪ Pseudostratified columnar

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA
▪ Epithelia are classified according to the number of cell layers and
shape of the component cells
▪ Stratified
▪ Squamous
▪ Cuboidal (e.g. sweat gland ducts, ovarian follicular cells, salivary
glands)
▪ Columnar (e.g. mammary gland ducts, portion of male urethra)
▪ Transitional

STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS
▪ Cell Layers and Cell Shapes
▪ The number of cell layers and the shape of cells in a specific type of
epithelium reflect the function the epithelium performs
▪ Simple epithelium, with its single layer of cells, is found in organs
that primarily function to move materials
▪ Diffusion of gases across the wall of the alveoli of the lungs
▪ Filtration of fluid across the filtration membranes in the kidneys
▪ Secretion from glands
▪ Nutrient absorption by the intestines

▪ The movement of materials through a stratified epithelium is
hindered by its layers
▪ Therefore, stratified epithelium is well adapted for its protective
function
▪ As the outer layers are damaged, they are replaced by cells from
deeper layers
▪ Found in areas where abrasion can occur, such as in the skin, anal
canal, and vagina

▪ Differences in function are also reflected in cell shape
▪ Cells are flat and thin then when the function is diffusion, such as in
the alveoli of the lungs, or filtration, such as in kidney glomeruli
▪ Cells with major function of secretion or absorption are usually
cuboidal or columnar
▪ Larger because they contain more organelles
▪ Simple columnar epithelium lining the stomach contains columnar
cells rich in secretory vesicles filled with mucus
▪ Simple cuboidal epithelial cells in the kidney tubules, contain many
mitochondria, which produce ATP required for active transport

▪ The shape and number of layers of epithelial cells can change if
they are subjected to long-term irritation or abnormal conditions
▪ In chronic smokers, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, which
performs a cleaning function by moving mucus and debris from
respiratory passageways, is replaced by stratified squamous
epithelium, which is more resistant to irritation but dose not
perform a cleaning function
▪ In esophageal reflux disease, stratified squamous epithelium lining the
esophagus is replaced by simple columnar epithelium

Question 4-1
Explain the consequences of having (a) non-keratinized stratified epithelium

rather than a simple columnar epithelium lining the digestive tract, and
(b) non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium rather than keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium at the surface of the skin.

▪ Free Surfaces
▪ Most epithelia have a free surface that is not in contact with other
ells and faces away from underlying tissues
▪ The characteristics of the free surface reflect its functions
▪ Smooth free surface reduces friction as material moves across it
▪ For example, simple squamous epithelium lining the blood vessels
▪ Microvilli are cylindrical extensions of the cell membrane that
increase the free surface area
▪ Simple columnar epithelium of the small intestine has microvilli on its
free surface to increase surface area for absorption

▪ Free Surfaces
▪ Cilia propel materials along the free surface of the cells
▪ The nasal cavity and trachea are lined with pseudostratified columnar
ciliated epithelium
▪ Intermixed with the ciliated cells are specialized mucus-producing cells
called goblet cells
▪ Dust and other materials are trapped in the mucus that covers the
epithelium, and movement of the cilia propels the mucus with its
entrapped particles to the back of the throat, where it is swallowed or
coughed up

▪ Cell Connections
▪ Epithelial cells are connected to one another in several ways
▪ Tight junctions bind adjacent together and form permeability
barriers
▪ Prevent the passage of materials between epithelial cells
▪ Materials that pass through the epithelial layer must pass through the
cells, allowing proper regulation
▪ Found in the lining of intestines and in most other simple epithelia

▪ Cell Connections
▪ Desmosomes are mechanical links that bind cells together
▪ Modified desmosomes, called hemidesmosomes, also anchor cells to
the basement membrane
▪ Usually found in epithelia subjected to stress, such as the stratified
squamous epithelium of the skin
▪ Gap junctions are small channels that allow small molecules and
ions to pass from one epithelial cell to an adjacent one
▪ Most epithelial cells are connected to one another by gap junctions
▪ Molecules or ions moving through gap junctions act as communication
signals to coordinate cellular activities (cell-to-cell communication)

GLANDS
▪ A gland is a structure that secretes substances onto a surface, into a
cavity, or into the blood
▪ Most glands are composed primarily of epithelium and are
multicellular (with the exception of goblet cells which are classified as
unicellular glands)
▪ Two Types of Multicellular Glands
▪ Exocrine glands are glands with ducts
▪ Endocrine glands are glands with no ducts and empty their
secretions, called hormones, into the blood

GLANDS
▪ Exocrine Gland Classification Based on Duct Structure
▪ Simple – ducts with no branches
▪ Compound – ducts that have many branches
▪ Tubular (straight coiled) – end of duct is tubular
▪ Acinus – ends expand into a saclike structure
▪ Alveolus – ends expand into a structure containing a small cavity

GLANDS
▪ Exocrine Gland Classification Based on Type of Secretion
▪ Merocrine – products are released with no actual cell material lost
▪ Secretions are either actively transported or packaged in vesicles and
then released by exocytosis at the free surfaces of the cells
▪ Sweat from sweat glands
▪ Digestive enzymes produced by the pancreas
▪ Apocrine – secretory products are released as fragments of the
gland cell
▪ Milk secretion by the mammary glands

GLANDS
▪ Exocrine Gland Classification Based on Type of Secretion
▪ Holocrine – involves shedding of entire cells
▪ Sebaceous glands of the skin

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
SECTION 4-3
LEARNING OUTCOME
▪ Describe the classification of connective tissue, and give examples of
each major type
Section 4-3. Connective Tissue

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
▪ Connective tissue is found throughout the body and is usually
characterized by large amounts of extracellular material that
separates cells from one another
▪ The extracellular material, called extracellular matrix, has three major
components:
▪ Protein fibers (collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers0
▪ Ground substance - consisting of non-fibrous protein and other
molecules (e.g. proteoglycans)
▪ Fluid

▪ The connective tissue cells are names according to their function
▪ Fibroblast and fibrocyte
▪ Osteoblast, osteocyte, and osteoclast
▪ Chondrocyte
▪ Macrophage
▪ Mast cell
▪ Plasma cell
▪ Reticular cell
▪ Adipocyte

▪ The connective tissue cells are names according to their function
▪ Pigment cell
▪ Mononuclear wandering cells
▪ Mesenchymal cell

FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
▪ Enclosing and separating other tissues
▪ Sheets of connective tissue form capsules around organs, such as
the liver and the kidneys
▪ Connecting tissues to one another
▪ Tendons, ligaments, and aponeurosis
▪ Supporting and moving parts of the body
▪ Bone

▪ Storing compounds
▪ Adipose tissue stores high-energy molecules
▪ Bones store minerals, such as calcium and phosphate
▪ Cushioning and insulating
▪ Adipose tissue cushions and protects the tissues it surrounds and
provides an insulating layer beneath the skin that helps conserve
heat
▪ Transporting
▪ Blood

▪ Protecting
▪ Cells of the immune system and blood provide protection against
toxins and tissue injury, as well as microorganisms
▪ Bones protect underlying structures from injury

CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
▪ Connective tissue types blend into one another, and the transition
points cannot be precisely identified
▪ As a result, connective tissue is somewhat arbitrarily classified by the
type and proportions of cells and extracellular matrix
▪ Two major categories of connective tissue are embryonic and adult
connective tissue
▪ By eight weeks of development, most of the embryonic connective
tissue has become specialized to form the types of connective tissue
seen in adults

CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
▪ Adult connective tissue consists of three types:
▪ Connective tissue proper (loose and dense)
▪ Supporting connective tissue (bone and cartilage)
▪ Fluid connective tissue (blood)

Question 4-2
In tendons, collagen fibers are oriented parallel to the length of the tendon. In the
skin, collagen fibers are oriented in many directions.
What are the functional advantages of the fiber arrangements in tendons and in
the skin?

Question 4-3
Scars consist of dense connective tissue made of collagen fibers. Vitamin C is

required for collagen synthesis.
Predict the effect of scurvy, a nutritional disease caused by vitamin C deficiency,

on wound healing.

MUSCLE TISSUE
SECTION 4-4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
▪ Describe the three types of muscle tissue by describing their general
structures, their locations in the body, and their functions
Section 4-4. Muscle Tissue

CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLE TISSUE
▪ The main characteristic of muscle tissue is its ability to contract, or
shorten, making movement possible
▪ Muscle contraction results from contractile proteins located within
the muscle cells
▪ The length of muscle cells is greater than the diameter
▪ Muscle cells are sometimes called muscle fibers because they often
resemble tiny threads

NERVOUS TISSUE
SECTION 4-5
LEARNING OUTCOMES
▪ Describe the functions of nervous tissue and the structure of a neuron
Section 4-5. Nervous Tissue

CHARACTERISTICS OF NERVOUS TISSUE
▪ Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
▪ It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities
▪ For example, the conscious control of skeletal muscles and the
unconscious regulation of cardiac muscle are accomplished by
nervous tissue
▪ Awareness of ourselves and the external environment, emotions,
reasoning, skills, and memory are other functions performed by
nervous tissue

▪ Many of these functions depend on the ability of the nervous tissue
cells to communicate with one another and with the cells of other
tissues by means of electrical signals called action potentials
▪ Nervous tissue consists of neurons and support cells
▪ The neuron or nerve cell, the structural and functional unit of the
nervous system, is responsible for conducting action potentials
▪ Cell body – contains the nucleus; site of general cell functions
▪ Dendrite – nerve cell process which convey impulse to the cell body
▪ Axon – nerve cell process which convey impulse away from the cell
body

▪ Glial cells are the support cells of the nervous system; they nourish,
protect, and insulate the neurons

TISSUE MEMBRANES
SECTION 4-6
LEARNING OUTCOMES
▪ List the structural and functional characteristics of mucous, serous,
and synovial membranes
Section 4-6. Tissue Membranes

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
▪ A membrane is a thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a structure
or lines a cavity
▪ Most membranes consist of epithelium and the connective tissue on
which the epithelium rests
▪ Four tissue membranes in the body
▪ Skin or cutaneous membrane – external membrane; stratified
squamous keratinizing epithelium and dense connective tissue
▪ Mucous membrane – internal membrane
▪ Serous membrane – internal membrane
▪ Synovial membrane – internal membrane

MUCOUS MEMBRANES
▪ Mucous membranes consist of various kinds of epithelium resting on
a thick layer of loose or areolar connective tissue
▪ They line cavities that open to the outside of the body, such as the
digestive tract, respiratory tract, and reproductive tracts
▪ Many, but not all, mucous membranes have mucous glands, which
secrete mucus
▪ Functions vary, depending on location, but they include protection,
absorption, and secretion

MUCOUS MEMBRANES
▪ For example, stratified squamous epithelium of the oral cavity
performs protective function
▪ Simple columnar epithelium of the intestine absorbs nutrients and
secretes digestive enzymes and mucus
▪ Mucous membranes also line the nasal passages and when it
becomes inflamed, we experience the “runny nose” characteristic of
the common cold or allergy

SEROUS MEMBRANES
▪ Serous membranes consist of simple squamous epithelium resting on
a delicate layer of loose or areolar connective tissue
▪ Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs within these cavities
▪ Secrete serous fluid, which covers the surface of the membranes
▪ The smooth surface of the epithelial cells of the serous membranes
combined with the lubricating qualities of the serous fluid prevent
damage from abrasion when organs in the thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities are rub against one another

SEROUS MEMBRANES
▪ Serous membranes are named according to their location
▪ Pericardial membrane or pericardium
▪ Peritoneal membrane or peritoneum
▪ Pleural membrane or pleura

SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES
▪ Synovial membranes are made up of only connective tissue
▪ They line the inside of the joint cavities, which are the spaces where
bones come together within a movable joint
▪ Synovial membranes produce synovial fluid, which makes the joint
very slippery, thereby reducing friction and allowing smooth
movement within the joint

TISSUE DAMAGE AND INFLAMMATION
SECTION 4-7
LEARNING OUTCOME
▪ Describe the process of inflammation in response to tissue damage,
and explain how inflammation protects the body
Section 4-7. Tissue Damage and Inflammation

ACUTE INFLAMMATION
▪ Inflammation occurs when tissues are damaged
▪ Acute inflammation is the immediate and early response to an
injurious agent
▪ When viruses infect epithelial cells of the upper respiratory tract,
symptoms of common cold are produced
▪ Immediate and painful events that follow trauma, such as closing your
finger in a car door or cutting yourself with a knife
▪ Inflammation mobilizes the body’s defenses and isolates and destroys
microorganisms, foreign materials, and damaged cells so that tissue
repair can proceed

ACUTE INFLAMMATION
▪ Five Cardinal Signs of Inflammation
▪ Rubor (redness)
▪ Calor (heat)
▪ Tumor (swelling)
▪ Dolor (pain)
▪ Functio laesa (loss of function)

ACUTE INFLAMMATION
▪ Three Major Components of Acute Inflammation
1. Alterations in vascular caliber that lead to an increase in blood
flow;
2. Structural changes in the microvasculature that permit the
plasma proteins and leukocytes to leave the circulation, and;
3. Emigration of the leukocytes from the microcirculation and their
accumulation in the focus of injury

ACUTE INFLAMMATION
▪ Following an injury, substances called chemical mediators are
released or activated in the injured tissues and adjacent blood vessels
▪ The mediators include histamine and prostaglandins
▪ Some mediators cause dilation of blood vessels, which produces
redness and heat, similar to what occurs when a person blushes
▪ Dilation of blood vessels is beneficial because it increases the speed
with which blood cells and other substances important for fighting
infections and repairing the injury are brought to the injury site

ACUTE INFLAMMATION
▪ Chemical mediators of inflammation also increase the permeability of
blood vessels, allowing materials and blood cells to move out of the
vessels and into the tissue, where they can deal directly with the
injury
▪ Edema, or swelling, of the tissues results when water, proteins, and
other substances from the blood move into the tissues
▪ One of the proteins, fibrin, forms a fibrous network that “walls off”
the site of injury from the rest of the body
▪ This mechanism can help prevent the spread of infectious agents

ACUTE INFLAMMATION
▪ One type of blood cell that enters the tissues is the neutrophil, a
phagocytic white blood cell that fights infections by ingesting bacteria
▪ Neutrophils die after ingesting a small number of bacteria
▪ The mixture of dead neutrophils, other cells, and fluid that
accumulate is called pus

ACUTE INFLAMMATION
▪ Pain associated with inflammation is produced in several ways
▪ Nerve cell endings are stimulated by direct damage and by some
chemical mediators to produce pain sensations
▪ The increased pressure in the tissue caused by edema and pus
accumulation can cause pain
▪ Pain, limitation of movement resulting from edema, and tissue
destruction all contribute to the disturbance of function, which can
be adaptive because it warns the person to protect the injured area
from further damage

CHRONIC INFLAMMATION
▪ Chronic inflammation, or prolonged, inflammation results when the
agent responsible for the injury is not removed or something else
interferes with the healing process
▪ It is associated histologically with the presence of lymphocytes and
macrophages, proliferation of blood vessels, fibrosis, and tissue
necrosis
▪ There is replacement of normal tissue by fibrous connective tissue, which
leads to loss of normal organ function
▪ Chronic inflammation of organs, such as the lungs, liver, or kidneys, can lead
to death

CHRONIC INFLAMMATION
▪ When inflammatory response lasts longer or is more intense than is
desirable, drugs are sometimes used to suppress the symptoms by
inhibiting the synthesis, release, or actions of the chemical
mediators of inflammation
▪ Antihistamines
▪ Aspirin and related drugs, such as ibuprofen and naproxen

Question 4-4
In some injuries, tissues are so severely damaged that cells die and blood vessels
are destroyed. For injuries such as these, where do the signs of inflammation,
such as redness, heat, edema, and pain occur?

TISSUE REPAIR
SECTION 4-8
LEARNING OUTCOME
▪ Explain the major events involved in tissue repair
Section 4-8. Tissue Repair

TISSUE REPAIR
▪ Tissue repair is the substitution of viable cells for dead cells and can
occur by regeneration or fibrosis
▪ In regeneration, the new cells are the same type as those that were
destroyed, and normal function is usually restored
▪ In fibrosis, or replacement, a new type of tissue develops that
eventually causes scar production and the loss of some tissue function
▪ The tissues involved and the severity of the wound determine the
type of tissue repair that dominates

TISSUE REPAIR
▪ Regeneration can completely repair some tissues, such as the skin and
the mucous membrane of the intestine
▪ In these cases, regeneration is accomplished primarily by stem cells,
which are self-renewing, undifferentiated cells that continue to divide
throughout life
▪ With each division, there is a daughter stem cell and a second cell that
can undergo differentiation to the same cell types as the dead cells

TISSUE REPAIR
▪ Fibrosis is the predominant repair mechanism in some tissues
▪ In the adult brain, heart, and skeletal muscle, there are relatively few
stem cells and the mature neurons, cardiac muscle, and skeletal
muscle do not divide
▪ While these cells cannot divide, they can recover from a limited
amount of damage
▪ For example, if the axon of a neuron is damaged, the neuron can grow
a new axon, but it will die if the cell body is sufficiently damage
▪ If these cells are killed, they are often replaced by connective tissue

TISSUE REPAIR
▪ In addition to the type of cells involved, the severity of an injury can
influence whether repair is by regeneration or fibrosis
▪ Generally, the more severe the injury, the greater the likelihood that
repair involves fibrosis
▪ When the edges of a wound are close together, the wound fills with
blood, and a clot forms
▪ The clot contains the thread-like protein fibrin, which binds the edges
of the wound together and stops the bleeding
▪ The surface of the clot dries to form a scab, which seals the wound
and helps prevent infection

TISSUE REPAIR
▪ An inflammatory response is activated to fight infectious agents in the
wound and to help the repair process
▪ Dilation of blood vessels brings blood cells and other substances to
the injury area, and increased blood vessel permeability allows them
to enter the tissue
▪ The area is “walled off” by the fibrin, and neutrophils enter the tissue
from the blood
▪ The epithelium at the edge of the wound undergoes regeneration and
migrates under the scab while the inflammatory response proceeds

TISSUE REPAIR
▪ Eventually, the epithelial cells from the edges meet, and the
epithelium is restored
▪ After the epithelium is repaired, the scab is sloughed off (shed)
▪ A second type of phagocytic cell, called a macrophage, removes the
dead neutrophils, cellular debris, and the decomposing clot
▪ Fibroblasts from the surrounding connective tissue migrate into the
area, producing collagen and other extracellular matrix components
▪ Capillaries grow from blood vessels at the edge of the wound and re-
vascularize the area

TISSUE REPAIR
▪ The result is fibrosis, during which the clot is replaced with
granulation tissue, a delicate, granular-appearing connective tissue
that consists of fibroblasts, collagen, and capillaries
▪ Eventually, normal connective tissue replaces the granulation tissue
▪ Sometimes, a large amount of granulation tissue persists as a scar,
which at first is bright red because numerous blood vessels are
present
▪ The scar turns from red to white as collagen accumulate, and the
blood vessels decrease in number

TISSUE REPAIR
▪ When the wound edges are far apart, the clot may not completely
close the gap, and it takes much longer for the epithelial cells to
regenerate and cover the wound
▪ With increased tissue damage, the degree of inflammation is greater,
there is more cell debris for the phagocytes to remove, and the risk of
infection increases
▪ Much more granulation tissue forms, and wound contracture, a result
of the contraction of fibroblasts in the granulation tissue, pulls the
edges of the wound closer together

TISSUE REPAIR
▪ Although wound contracture reduces the size of the wound and
speeds healing, it can lead to disfiguring and debilitating scars
Question 4-5
Explain why it is advisable to suture large wounds.

EFFECTS OF AGING ON TISSUES
SECTION 4-9
LEARNING OUTCOME
▪ Describe the age-related changes that occur in cells and in
extracellular matrix
Section 4-9. Effects of Aging on Tissues

▪ At the tissue level, age-related changes affect cells and the
extracellular matrix produced by them
▪ Cells divide more slowly in older than in younger people
▪ Rate of red blood cell synthesis declines in the elderly
▪ Injuries in the very young heal more rapidly and more completely
than in older people, in part, because of the more rapid cell division
▪ For example, a fracture in an infant’s femur is likely to heal quickly
and eventually leave no evidence in the bone
▪ A similar fracture in an adult heals more slowly, and a scar, seen in
radiographs of the bone, is likely to persist throughout life

▪ Consequences of changes in the extracellular matrix are important
▪ Collagen fibers become more irregular in structure, even though they
may increase in number
▪ As a consequence, connective tissues with abundant collagen, such as
tendons and ligaments, become less flexible and more fragile
▪ Elastic fibers fragment, bind to Ca2+, and become less elastic, causing
elastic connective tissues to become less acidic

▪ The reduced flexibility and elasticity of connective tissue is
responsible for increased wrinkling of the skin, as well as increased
tendency for older people’s bones to break
▪ The walls of arteries become less elastic because of changes in
collagen and elastic fibers
▪ Atherosclerosis results as plaques form in the walls of blood vessels,
which contain collagen fibers, lipids, and calcium deposits
▪ These changes result in reduced blood supply to tissues and increased
susceptibility to blockage and rupture of arteries

LEARNING ASSESSMENT TASKS
APPENDIX
Appendix. Learning Assessment Tasks
Appendix. Learning Assessment Tasks

Chapter 4 Tissues

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Chapter 4 Tissues

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TISSUES

CHAPTER 4 – HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Section 4-1. Tissues and Histology

Section 4-1. Tissues and Histology

Section 4-1. Tissues and Histology

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Explain the consequences of having (a) non-keratinized stratified epithelium

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-3. Connective Tissue

Section 4-3. Connective Tissue

Section 4-3. Connective Tissue

Section 4-3. Connective Tissue

Section 4-3. Connective Tissue

Section 4-3. Connective Tissue

Section 4-3. Connective Tissue

Section 4-3. Connective Tissue

Section 4-3. Connective Tissue

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Scars consist of dense connective tissue made of collagen fibers. Vitamin C is

Predict the effect of scurvy, a nutritional disease caused by vitamin C deficiency,

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue

Section 4-4. Muscle Tissue

Section 4-4. Muscle Tissue

Section 4-5. Nervous Tissue

Section 4-5. Nervous Tissue

Section 4-5. Nervous Tissue

Section 4-5. Nervous Tissue

Section 4-6. Tissue Membranes

Section 4-6. Tissue Membranes

Section 4-6. Tissue Membranes

Section 4-6. Tissue Membranes

Section 4-6. Tissue Membranes

Section 4-6. Tissue Membranes

Section 4-6. Tissue Membranes

Section 4-7. Tissue Damage and Inflammation

Section 4-7. Tissue Damage and Inflammation

Section 4-7. Tissue Damage and Inflammation

Section 4-7. Tissue Damage and Inflammation

Section 4-7. Tissue Damage and Inflammation

Section 4-7. Tissue Damage and Inflammation

Section 4-7. Tissue Damage and Inflammation

Section 4-7. Tissue Damage and Inflammation

Section 4-7. Tissue Damage and Inflammation

Section 4-7. Tissue Damage and Inflammation

Section 4-2. Epithelial Tissue