Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain at Bell The first germanium bipolar transistor.
Labs - Brattain and Bardeen invented Roughly 50 years later, electronics
the bipolar transistor in 1947. account for 10% (4 trillion dollars) of
the world GDP.
Electronics Milestones
1874 Braun invents the solid-state rectifier. 1958 Integrated circuits developed by Kilby
and Noyce
1906 DeForest invents triode vacuum tube.
1961 First commercial IC from Fairchild
1907-1927 Semiconductor
First radio circuits developed from 1963 IEEE formed from merger of IRE and
diodes and triodes. AIEE
1925 Lilienfeld field-effect device patent 1968 First commercial IC opamp
filed.
1970 One transistor DRAM cell invented by
1947 Bardeen and Brattain at Bell Dennard at IBM.
Laboratories invent bipolar
transistors. 1971 4004 Intel microprocessor introduced.
1952 Commercial bipolar transistor 1978 First commercial 1-kilobit memory.
production at Texas Instruments. 1974 8080 microprocessor introduced.
1956 Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley 1984 Megabit memory chip introduced.
receive Nobel prize.
2000 Alferov, Kilby, and Kromer share Nobel
prize
Evolution of Electronic
Devices
Vacuum Discrete
Tubes Transistors
The Intel 4004 was followed in 1972 by the Intel 8008, the world's
first 8-bit microprocessor.
The 8008 was not, however, an extension of the 4004 design, but
instead the culmination of a separate design project at Intel.
12-bit designs
16-bit designs had only been on the market briefly when 32-bit
implementations started to appear.
The most significant of the 32-bit designs is the Motorola MC68000,
introduced in 1979.
The 68k, as it was widely known, had 32-bit registers in its
programming model but used 16-bit internal data paths, three 16-
bit Arithmetic Logic Units, and a 16-bit external data bus (to reduce
pin count), and externally supported only 24-bit addresses
(internally it worked with full 32 bit addresses).
64-bit designs
While 64-bit microprocessor designs have been in use in several
markets since the early 1990s (including the Nintendo 64 gaming
console in 1996), the early 2000s saw the introduction of 64-bit
microprocessors targeted at the PC market.
With AMD's introduction of a 64-bit architecture backwards-
compatible with x86,x86-64 (also called AMD64), in September
2003, followed by Intel's near fully compatible 64-bit extensions
(first called IA-32e or EM64T, later renamed Intel 64), the 64-bit
desktop era began.
Both versions can run 32-bit legacy applications without any
performance penalty as well as new 64-bit software. With operating
systems Windows XP x64, Windows Vista x64, Windows 7 x64,Linux,
BSD, and Mac OS X that run 64-bit native, the software is also
geared to fully utilize the capabilities of such processors. The move
to 64 bits is more than just an increase in register size from the IA-
32 as it also doubles the number of general-purpose registers.
RISC
2.Photolithography
a) Photoresists
b) Photomask and Reticles
c) Patterning
Semiconductor Manufacturing Process
(cont)
Czochralski Process is a
Technique in Making
Single-Crystal Silicon
A Solid Seed Crystal is
Rotated and Slowly
Extracted from a Pool
of Molten Si
Requires Careful
Control to Give
Crystals Desired Purity
and Dimensions
CYLINDER OF MONOCRYSTALLINE
Photolithography
Photolithography
Photolithography is
a technique that is
used to define the
shape of micro-
machined structures
on a wafer.
Photolithography
Photoresist
The first step in the photolithography process is to
develop a mask, which will be typically be a chromium
pattern on a glass plate.
Positive resists.
Oxidation of Silicon
SiO2 growth is a key process step in
manufacturing all Si devices
- Thick ( 1µm) oxides are used for field oxides
(isolate devices from one another )
- Thin gate oxides (100 Å) control MOS devices
- Sacrificial layers are grown and removed to
clean up surfaces
The stability and ease of formation of SiO2 was
one of the reasons that Si replaced Ge as the
semiconductor of choice.
The simplest method of producing an oxide layer
consists of heating a silicon wafer in an oxidizing
atmosphere.
Etching
Etching is the process where unwanted areas of films
are removed by either dissolving them in a wet
chemical solution (Wet Etching) or by reacting them
with gases in a plasma to form volatile products (Dry
Etching).
Wafer
Design
Preparation
Cleaning Planarization
Test &
Assembly
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on
56
Electrical Test Probe
bonding pad
nitride
Metal 2
n-well p-well
p-channel transistor n-channel transistor
p+ substrate
Defective IC
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on
58
Die Attach and Wire Bonding
bonding pad
connecting pin
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Final Test
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on
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