A. M.

Gernand
 The difference between the right word and almost the
right word is the difference between lightning and a
lightning bug.”
[Mark Twain, The Wit and Wisdom of Mark Twain]

 Academic style

 Referencing
 Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central
point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of
argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its objective is to inform
rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard written form
of the language. There are ten main features of academic writing that
are often discussed. Academic writing is to some extent: complex,
formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses language
precisely and accurately. It is also well organised and planned. (UEFAP,
2014)
 Effective Academic English depends on producing the most
appropriate style for your purpose and audience. It includes
consistency, the right level of formality, expressing ideas precisely,
being concise and objective (Manchester University, 2017).
 Formal in tone
 avoid contractions or shortened forms of verbs, such as won't, doesn't or it's
please note - can't, cannot (one word, not two)
 avoid Informal adjectives (hard, easy, big,)
Hard: difficult, complicated, harsh, intolerable, unpleasant, undeniable,
Easy: effortless, elementary, facile, manageable, mere, obvious, simple, uncomplicated
Big: considerable, extensive, immense, substantial, tremendous
 avoid idioms – often seen as informal and personal (every coin has two sides... / on
the other hand...) Metaphors: (a rocky road ahead... / the bottom line...)
 beware of using slang, and general English terms
Stuff: effects, equipment, gear, goods, individual, kit, luggage, objects, paraphernalia, possessions,
substances
A lot of: abundant, adequate, considerable, plenteous, sizeable, substantial, sufficient, significant,
voluminous
Things: aspects, areas, elements, facts, figures, materials, points, situation, subject, information
 phrasal verbs are often considered informal
put off – postpone / look into - investigate / come across - discover
 Complexity
 written language is relatively more complex than spoken language.
Written language has longer words, it is lexically more dense and it has a more varied
vocabulary. It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written texts are
shorter and the language has more grammatical complexity, including more subordinate
clauses and more passives.
 precision and accuracy of terms
 hedging / caution
In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance
on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making.
A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a ‘hedge’.
Writers are careful not to make claims that are too strong. Words like “may” and “might” are
often used to make claims less strong. Writers are also very precise about the circumstances
in which a claim is valid.
 Impersonal in style
 avoid personal forms (I, you, he, she, you, they)
Use 'There' as a subject; e.g. 'There is a serious risk of...'
Use 'It' as a subject; e.g. 'It is impossible to...'
Use 'One' as a subject; e.g.'One may ask whether...' ('One' is a formal version of 'You' [plural] in general)
 use Passive constructions – less personal
They can learn English effectively... >> English can be learnt effectively...
They analysed the data and they discovered >> The data was analysed...
 use Gerunds (ing forms)
They have to speak English >> Speaking English is necessary
If we understand the reasons behind... >> Understanding the rationale indicates...
 long noun subjects or objects are common in academic writing
We analysed the data and we found evidence…. >> Analysis of the data provided evidence….
They have many exercises to fill in the missing words available to learn from. >> The availability of gap fill
exercises enhance learning
 Layout
 organisation / explicitness
Academic writing is well organised. It flows easily from one section to the next in a logical fashion.
Academic writing is explicit about the relationships in the text. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the
writer in English to make it clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related. These
connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.
 planning
Academic writing is well planned. It usually takes place after research and evaluation, according to a
specific purpose and plan.
 relevance
Only include information that is relevant to the question. A common mistake is to give too much
unnecessary descriptive detail, which uses up too many words, while not demonstrating critical
understanding of the issue. You need to decide: What is relevant? How much detail do I need to give?
 Conciseness – in order to write within the word count, you have to write concisely.
Avoid repeating yourself – do not repeat an idea because you think that will show its importance.
Use as few words as you can without losing meaning or complexity. We use more words in spoken than
written English, so writing often involves finding alternative words to the words we use in everyday speech.
Edit your work carefully to find ways you can reduce word count
Quoting and referencing
 Quotation marks
 One style
 Link vs. full reference
 http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/using/guide_to_citi
ng_internet_sourc.html
 Holland, Matt. 2004. Guide to citing Internet sources
[online]. Poole, Bournemouth University. Dostęp:
http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/using/guide_to_citi
ng_internet_sourc.html [20.04.2006].
 Quotation vs. paraphrase
The language of academic publications is different from your
own style. Putting a copied fragment next to your own text
looks like this:

It’s visible.

It’s easily detectable.

It’s wrong, because it’s stealing

and lying.
 Quotation reproduces a statement word-for-word as it
appears in its original source – in quotation marks.
Example: “In the case of Facebook, it has changed its format multiple times, and
merged other literacy practices – email, instant messaging, games – into its
structure in an attempt to keep users on the site” (Keller 2014, 74)
 Paraphrase explains a statement by using your own words
and sentence structure, without quotation marks.
Example: Facebook has tried to hold on to its users by incorporating new
functions like games and email (Keller 2014).
 Summary explains a statement using your words, but
typically condenses a larger statement into a shorter
explanation.
Example: Anne of Green Gables is a book series that follows the life of an unruly
red-headed orphan as she grows from an romantic adolescent into an
independent young woman. From: https://louisville.edu/writingcenter/for-students-1/common-writing-questions-
1/what-is-the-difference-between-quotation-paraphrase-and-summary
 ALWAYS include a reference.

 Author
 Title
 Publication date & place
 Link if necessary
 A link alone is never enough for reference. Any text you use usually has
an author, and always has a title.
 Don’t overload your bibliography with online sources, especially non-
academic ones. Some are okay. Many – not so much.
 Wikipedia
 Articles in academic online journals
 Grammar
 Articles
 Tenses
 ...

 Punctuation (commas actually matter)

 PROOFREADING
 hanoverkaleidoscope.wordpress.com

Pictures from: https://www.boredpanda.com/drawing-skills-progress-before-after/

https://vignette.wikia.nocookie.net/warframe/images/e/e2/Lets-eat-grandma.jpg/revision/latest?cb=20150806164111
https://dkru86weszx9t.cloudfront.net/blog/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/eat-your-dinner.png
https://www.facebook.com/writingcom