Continuity Equation:: D M M T D V D T

THE CONSERVATION LAWS – mass conservation
In the moment t the material volume V(t) contains a given

amount of fluid that is described by mass m.
The continuity condition states that there is no “free” space in
volume V(t).
The law of mass conservation states that the fluid in material
volume V(t) within closed material surface A(t) can’t disappear
or appear without the existence of internal sources or sinks.
Integral form of mass conservation law is the so-called
continuity equation:
d
m
d
t
0;m
(
t
) d
V 
V
(
t)
Generally, the density within the control volume can be

variable in space and time  = (t, r).
After replacing the material volume V(t) with control volume V
accompanying control surface A can be divided into "free" part
A and part in contact with a rigid body S.
Applying the transport theorem on transport property J = m
and its density  = dJ/dV = dm/dV =  one gets:
d
m



d
V
 v
  


d
A vd
S
d
t(
V)

t (
A) (
S)
The total change of mass in time consists of two parts. The first
(on the right side of equation) is local and if one deals with
non-steady flows it is different from 0.
The remaining parts on the right hand side of equation are

convective members representing the mass flux through the
control surfaces A and S.
Only the normal component of fluid velocity vn will contribute

to the amount of transported fluid, while tangential
component of velocity vt influence only the deformations of
control volume.
If the velocity vector has the same orientation as outer normal

on control surfaces dA and dS, the products vdA and
v dS are positive values.
The other normal for control surface dS (around the body) is

always pointed perpendicularly and toward to the solid body.
Outflow from the “left” part of surface A' is the same as the
inflow in the “right” part of surface A’.
Using the GGO theorem: 
a
d A  
di
v adV
A V
  
For transport equation (conservation of mass):
d
m 
d

t(  

d
V
t (
vd
A
 vd
S

V) A) (
S)
m
one gets: d

d
iv
(
v


)
dV
d 
t ()
V
t 
The result of integration can be 0 only if the integral function
is equal to 0. That gives rise to writing the differential form of
 
continuity equation (conservation of mass):


t

d
iv
(v
)


t
v
g
ra
dd
i
vv
0
  
()
u ()
v()
   
w
0

t x y z
(valid for compressible as well as for incompressible fluids).
For steady flows: local component /t = 0.
For homogenous fluids: g

r
ad
.
v0
Since the fluid has finite density   0, follows d

iv
.
v 
0
Finally, continuity equation (conservation of mass) for 3D

steady flow of incompressible fluid reads:

uvw
  0

xyz
For compressible fluids and unsteady flow with velocities less
then speed of sound (water hammer) the continuity equation
reads:

 


uvw
 0
 
t xx
x
THE CONSERVATION LAWS – momentum conservation
We are dealing with the fluid flow under the influence of
forces (stresses).
One derives the general equation that relates acceleration,

mass forces and stresses on differential fluid element.
The fluid is observed as continuum.
Invoking the constitutive equations to define the relationships

between stresses and strain velocity, one gets the so-called
Navier-Stokes equation (NS). The base for the derivation of NS
equation is the Newton second axiom:
d m v
 Fi
dt
We are looking for the balance of external forces acting on
the fluid element.
The total (absolute-substantial) change of momentum in time
is defined with equation:
dm v dv Dv
m V
dt dt masa Dt
ubrzanje
D v v v v v
 u v w
D t t x y z
Mass forces (e.g.. gravity acceleration g) can be quantified
with potential gradient (e.g. gravitational potential =gz).



FV
G 




g
zV  
Surface forces act on contact surfaces and can be
decomposed on normal and shear components.
The force action is resolved due to action of surface stresses.

n
d
Fn

t
d

Ft
d
A d
A
In the Cartesian system we have an symmetric stress tensor

with 3 diagonal members that represent normal stresses and
6 off-diagonal members that represent tangential stresses.
11 12 13

   
 21 22 23

   
 31 32 33
In 2D problems stress tensor has the shape:
11 12 
  
 21 22 
Writing the Taylor series with the inclusion of only the first
member one holds (for x-direction):


11dx 1 
11dx 1
x  
1 1
F  2 dy
dz  2 dy
dz
 x  x

21dy1
2
dxd
z 

21dy21
dxdz
 2   2 
 y  y


 d
11
x
dyd
z


 21d
xdy
dz
x y
Substitution in Newton second law-axiom (conservation of
 
V 
D
momentum) for x-direction holds :
u





1
1



21 

V 
Du 



1
1



21 

D t  x y  Dt  x y 
or in vector form for 3D problem:
 
Dv
g 
Dt
or by components :
Du 11 21 31
   
dm v Dt x y z
 Fi Dv 12 22 32
dt    
Dt x y z
Dw 13 23 33
 g  
Dt x y z
The main problem is that we have 9 unknown components
(3 velocity components and 6 stress components) and only 4
equations (1 continuity equation and 3 momentum
equations).
Constitutive equations define the stresses as function of

velocities (more precisely velocity of deformation).
Stress tensor consist of two parts. One is linked to the

pressure p and other to the viscous stresses .
11 p11
22 p22
33 p33
Pressure p represents isotropy normal stress independent on
velocity or viscosity.
Viscous stresses  in Newtonian fluids are linearly

proportional to strain velocity (elements ei,j in symmetrical
part of velocity gradient tensor) and viscosity :
1v 
v 
ij    
i j
e
2x 
x 
 j i 
Using the dynamic viscosity coefficient  as proportionality
coefficient, tensor of viscous stresses in compact form reads:

ij 
2e
ij
For the Newtonian incompressible fluids the members of
“total” stress tensor are given as:


i
j
p
2e i
j i
j
For example: 1
1

p
u
2 2
x
3


v




z

w

y




Finally, introduction of constitutive equations in the second
Newton axiom (momentum conservation) gives the so-called
Navier-Stokes equation:
D
v

D
t


g




pv

v
T



 
Now we have “closed” system of differential equations that is
suitable for description of incompressible Newtonian fluid
flow (4 equations and 4 unknowns - 3 velocity components
and pressure):
x-direction:
u u u u 1p 2u 2u 2u
u v w   2  2  2
t x y z x x y z 
y-direction:
v v v v 1p 2v 2v 2v
u v w   2  2  2
t x y z y x y z 
z-direction:
w w w w 1p 2w 2w 2w
u v w  g 2  2  2 
t x y z z x y z 
THE CONSERVATION LAWS – Reynolds (RANS)
Turbulent flow prevails in most engineering problems.
According to the flow velocity measurements in one fixed

point of the circular pressurized pipe we differentiate :
1 - statistically steady
turbulent flow under
statistically steady pressure
condition,
2 - statistically unsteady
turbulent flow under
statistically unsteady
pressure condition.
The instantaneous value of an arbitrary flow field (velocity,
pressure, temperature) can be interpreted as the sum of
average value (averaged over finite time interval – denoted
with overbar) and fluctuating value (denoted with ‘ ):
v 
vv '
TTT p '
pp EE E E' 0
'
The averaged value of fluctuating component through the

averaging period is equal to 0.
The duration of averaging interval depends on the flow
condition under consideration.
This approach to the description of turbulence is stochastic in
nature since the flow is viewed as a stochastic process with a
random variable E. In following we comment only the
turbulent flow of homogenous fluid.
Continuity equation for turbulent flow of homogenous and
incompressible fluid has the same form regardless of the
velocity form (instantaneous, averaged or fluctuating).

uvw 
u vw 
u' 
v' 
w'
  0   0    0

xyz 
x y 
z 
x y z
After a few steps of algebraic manipulation and not taking into

account the members of the higher order we get the so-called
Reynolds equation:

u
u
u 
u

u'
u'
v
'
v'
w
'
w
'
u
v
w
  

t
x
y 
z
x 
yz  (component in
  



2 2 2
u 1
p u u u x-direction)

  


B
2 

xx2
xyz 2

Reynolds equation is derived from Navier-Stokes equation due
to replacement of instantaneous velocities and pressure with
the sum of averaged and fluctuating components.
Reynolds equation and Navier-Stokes equation are similar.
On the left hand side of Reynolds equation appear new

members that represent the participation of fluctuation
components on total momentum change in time.
After replacing those members on the right hand side of

equation, on the left hand side remain only the members that
represent the change of averaged momentum in time.
   

u u uu u1p
uvw

B

t 
x
yzxx









u


u
2 2 2
x y z






2 2 2
u u'
u'u
'
v'u
 

xy
'
w
z
'

On the right hand side in addition to the «real» averaged

volume forces (gravitation) and averaged surface forces
(pressure and viscosity) we also find additional «negative
virtual» surface force associated with «virtual» stresses.
FLUID FLOW NEAR THE WALL - steady laminar flow
The real fluid flow around the solid body or along its
boundaries induces the force action on it.
Those forces represent the resistance to the fluid flow and can
be divided into two major components:
Friction resistance due to tangential stresses (act on the
surface of fluid and solid body),
Form resistance due to normal stresses (act normaly on the
surfaces).
Let’s analyze the situation of flow between two infinitely wide

plates that are separated by relatively small distance B.
In the first example upper plate is moving with constant
velocity VB. The pressure gradient in movement direction is
dp/ds = 0 (so-called Couette flow).
The distribution of tangential stresses and velocities can be

derived from Navier –Stokes equation for uniform and steady
flow as well as from momentum conservation directly applied
on control volume:
dp

sy
d
 
y
s0

ds dy
According to adopted equality –dp/ds = 0 (Couette flow) we
find the valid relation for the stress distribution along y-axes
d /dy = 0.
Observing the Newtonian fluid and laminar flow, the tangential
stresses are defined through the linear relationship.
Boundary conditions at contact surfaces between plates and
fluid are: y = 0  u = 0 ; y = B  u = VB. After integration one
gets the linear profile for velocity distribution and constant for
tangential stress distribution:
y
u=VB
B
VB
τ0=μ
B
In the next example both of the plates are in rest and at the
angle to the horizontal plane. Pressure gradient in direction
of flow is different from zero –dp/ds  0 (Poiseuille flow).
Applying the momentum conservation principle on control
  
volume reads:
d
pd


s
y
s
y
g

sy
s
i
n 
0
d
s dy
From geometrical relation sin = - dz/ds follows:

d(p
d
g
z)
d
yds
The right hand side of equation represents the gradient of
piezometer head with the symbol GP. After the use of Newton-
constitutive equation  =  (du/dy) we get:
GP = -gIP =  (d2u/dy2)
Boundary conditions at contact surfaces between plates and

fluid are y = 0 ; y = B  u = 0. Parabolic velocity profile and
linear tangential stress profile are obtained after integration:

G 
B
( 
u P(
B 2
yy) G y
)

P
2 2
Maximum velocity is at coordinate (y = B/2) and has the value

umax = -GPB2/8 . Mean velocity is V=2/3*umax.
FLUID FLOW NEAR THE WALL - boundary layer
The flow within the boundary layer is non-uniform and

develops in flow direction.
Boundary layer covers the flow region between solid boundary

and free flow.
Flow within the boundary layer exhibits the properties of real –

viscous fluid, while the free flow (beyond the boundary layer)
can be observed as inviscid (ideal fluid).
Let us analyze the example with the flat and thin plate in rest
that is laid in a horizontal direction. The flow field is defined
with uniform incoming velocity U0 until the plate is reached.
One would note the development of boundary layer as

increase in layer thickness between the plate and flow region
with still undisturbed velocity U0 (free flow).
In the boundary layer the velocity is a function of vertical

distance from the plate u(y).
The boundary layer thickness  increases along the plate,

wherein the thickness is defined as the position where velocity
reach the value u()=0,99U0.
In the boundary layer may occur laminar and turbulent flow.
At the beginning of the plate appears laminar boundary layer.
After the initiation of instabilities the flow within the boundary
layer turns from laminar to turbulent.
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at the finite
spatial distance (transition region).
Local Reynolds number (no dimensional parameter) is used for
parametisation Rex = U0x /, where x represents the distance
from the plate beginning.
Pressure gradient in the free flow is adopted as dp/dx = 0.
Boundary layer is thin  the pressure in BL is constant.
Boundary layer thickness depends on  =(x, U0, , ) = (t,).
From the condition of dimensional x

 
t
homogenity: U
0
Non dimensional velocity profile in laminar boundary layer
(for Rex< 500 000) after Blasius (1905):
x
5.0
U0
Tangential stress on the contact with the plate is derived from

the velocity gradient directly:


0
d
u
d
y

0,
33
U
0 1
2R
x
e/
2
x 
The turbulent boundary layer appears after the transition, and
is characterized by much more complex structure of flow.
Most of the boundary layer is made of a turbulent zone with
eddies and fluctuations of flow parameters.
In the vicinity of the wall the fluctuations are damped and
laminar flow conditions prevail (viscous sublayer).
Constant tangential stress 0 appears in the most part of BL.
In the vicinity of free flow tangential stress decreases rapidly

towards 0.
0
One introduce the term „shear velocity“ : u* 

In the region of viscous sub-layer the pure laminar flow with
linear velocity profile u = (0 /) y takes place.
In turbulent region of BL the momentum exchange takes place

mostly due to eddy activity (fluctuation in velocity field).
As the result of more detailed analyses one gets the so-called
logarithmic law of velocity distribution:
u 1  - Karman constant = 0,4

 ln
yC
u
*  C - constant of integration as a function of
boundary condition
The value of constant C differs for the characteristic regions

inside the overall turbulent region of boundary layer:
For inner turbulent zone (strong viscosity influence):
u y
2ln 
,5 5
,5 30 < y / l < 500
u
* l
The transition from linear (viscous sublayer) to logarithmic law
takes place in transition region 5<y/l<30
For other turbulent zone (negligible viscosity influence):
0
U u y y / l > 500

2,5
ln
u* 
In practical application one can use simpler form for velocity
distribution profile that is valid for a wide range of Re
numbers:
u y
1/ 7
85% of boundary layer is contained
 
U0  within other turbulent zone
BERNOULLI EQUATION - ideal fluid
It is a useful tool in solving some engineering problems where
pressure and mean velocities are to be determined.
It deals with mechanical energy balance, following the

changes in contribution of position, pressure and kinetic
energies as the components of mechanical energy.
Using the Bernoulli equation for an “ideal” fluid flow assumes

that the fluid is inviscid and the flow is irrotational and steady.
By adopting the idea of “inviscid” fluid, Navier-Stokes

equation transforms to Euler equation :

D
v
 
D
t


p
gz  
In the derivation of Bernoulli equation we use the Euler
equation (component in z direction). Total change of velocity
component w in z direction is given with (steady flow
w/t=0)
D www    w
 u v w
Dt  x y  z

w w w  wu u wv v 
w
u v w u  
u v  
v w 

x y 
z  x 
z z y 
z z 
z

u v 

u2
yv 
2xu 

v 
z 
w
w 
z  z
  w =0

u2
yv 
2x
1u
2
u1

v
z 2
v 1

w
z 2z

1 2 2 2

u y  x 2

2 v 
2 
z
uvw  
2
k
All members containing  vanish in irrotational flow:

11 
p
gz
12p
 
 
2


k k gz
0

z2 z
zz
2 
B
e
r
no
ul
l
ij
eva
f
un
kc
i
j
a
Bernoulli function is constant for z direction, along the

streamline and perpendicular to it:
 1 2 p 
 k  gz0
s2  
12 p
k  gzkonst.
2 
Bernoulli equation enables monitoring and comparison of
different states of flow along the streamlines, as well as the
estimation of energy components contribution in the
mechanical energy E as a whole:
2
v p
 
2
g
z
g
ko
ns
t
. E

z (position energy level) + p/g (pressure energy level) = PL
(piezometric level or piezometric head)
PL (piezometric level) + v2/2g (kinetic energy level) = EL

(mechanical energy level)
PRESSURIZED PIPE FLOW – circular cross section
There is no free surface (incompressible Newton fluid).
In this course we analyze only steady flow condition .
The geometry of conduit (pipe) is defined with diameter D
and length L.
Applying the assumption L>>D we can ignore the influence of
“initial” pipe section where velocity distribution develops up
to the final stage. Downstream, the velocity profile is uniform
if the pipe profile is also uniform.
Stresses (friction) at the contact
with the pipe are defined with
Already known relation:
u
W 
r
To preserve the flow, stress W need to be “overcome”.
We want to determine the stress distribution in pipe cross

section along with the empirical relationship between these
stresses and velocity. The stress is linearly distributed
perpendicular to the pipe axis:
r p z
   g 
2s s
R
W  pgz
2s
If the flow is uniform, stress W has zero change in flow
direction (du/ds=0; constant pipe cross section). Therefore,
gradients of PL and EL are constant.
2
v p1
 z1 
1
2g g
v22 p2
  z2 ELIN
2g g
The level of energy line on position 2 is less for ELIN (line loss
of mechanical energy) in relation to position 1, regardless on
the position of EL or PL (above or below pipe axis).
If PL lies below the pipe axis for some pipe section, the
pressure is less then atmospheric.
The occurrence of p<patm does not affect the slope of EL and

PL and discharge through the pipe.
Modification of the pipe length or diameter will cause the
change in discharge (at the same boundary conditions - water
level in reservoirs).
The intensity of line loss ELIN can be “easily” determined for
the circular cross-section pipe with diameter D and length L.
One would use the so-called Darcy-Weisbach friction
coefficient  with the corresponding equation:
2
 E LIN  Lv
Dg 2
The relationship between friction coefficient  and stresses at

the solid boundary w is defined with equation:
v 2
W
42
Generally, the coefficient  is the function of Re (Reynolds
number) and /D (relative roughness).
In the case of laminar flow:  = f (Re)= 64/Re (for Re<2300)
Analytical solution of Navier-Stokes equation does not exist
for the flow in the turbulent regime (Re>2300). Consequently,
 should be determined from experiment (Moody diagram).
In the transitional regime  is the function of Re number and
relative roughness  = f (Re, /D), while in the turbulent-
rough regime  depends only on relative roughnes  = f (/D).
In addition to line losses ELIN appear the local losses of
mechanical energy ELOK. Its onset is induced by changing the
pipe geometry and accompanied flow conditions (diameter
expansion/narrowing, branches, closure vents).
As in the case of line losses, local losses ELOK are calculated
in relation to the kinetic energy (member v2/2g).
PRESSURIZED PIPE FLOW – friction resistance (line losses)
0
,2
5
For practical problems one can  2
 k 5,7
4 

use explicit relation:  3
log s
 0
,9

  ,
7 DR e 

PRESSURIZED PIPE FLOW – friction resistance (line losses)
0
,2
5
For practical problems one can  2
 k 5,7
4 

use explicit relation:  3
log s
 0
,9

  ,
7 DR e 

PRESSURIZED PIPE FLOW – friction resistance (local losses)
A few examples of local losses :
PRESSURIZED PIPE FLOW – line and local losses
PRESSURIZED PIPE FLOW – pumps and turbines
The pumps and turbines present the sources and sinks of
mechanical energy.
At the position of their occurrence
appear local jump (pump) or
local fall (turbine) in
energy line (EL).
The basic parameters in
pump calculation are
energy raising height HP
and discharge QP that
should be sustained in
the pipe system.
Bernoulli equation for the real fluid flow can be used for
calculation of required pump raising height HP:


pp 2
v2
v

H
A(
z
d
z)
l
dl dl


H
d
Hl
gg 2
vertical difference in difference in difference in sum of all energy
free surface pressure energy kinetic energy losses from point „2“
between two between two to point „d“
chambers chambers
(large chambers sum of all energy losses
- velocity = 0) from point „l“ to point „1“
The required pump power is given by:

ρg
Q H
P P P
η
 - the efficiency degree of power transfer from pump to fluid
( is always less then 1).
Pump raising height HP consist of two components:
static HP-stat that is independent on discharge QP and dynamic
component HP-din dependent on QP.
Turbines, among other situations occur in the structures
intended for water power utilization.
Power plants are divided into low, medium and high-pressure,
depending on the available potential difference between
upper and lower water.
Characteristic values of the level difference between lower and
upper water are in the range :
- Low-pressure facilities H < 15m
- Medium-pressure facilities H = 15-50m
- High-pressure facilities H > 50m
Different types of turbines are to applied according to available
potential
Turbine type HT[m]
Pelton 2000-100
Francis 150-80
Kaplan and pipe turbines 80-2
The power achieved with the turbine is expressed by equation:

P
t
gQ
T
HTT 
 - the efficiency degree of power transfer from fluid to
turbine ( is always less then 1).

Continuity Equation:: D M M T D V D T

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THE CONSERVATION LAWS – mass conservation

In the moment t the material volume V(t) contains a given

Generally, the density within the control volume can be

The remaining parts on the right hand side of equation are

Only the normal component of fluid velocity vn will contribute

If the velocity vector has the same orientation as outer normal

The other normal for control surface dS (around the body) is

For homogenous fluids: g

Since the fluid has finite density   0, follows d

Finally, continuity equation (conservation of mass) for 3D

One derives the general equation that relates acceleration,

Invoking the constitutive equations to define the relationships

In the Cartesian system we have an symmetric stress tensor

11 12 13

Constitutive equations define the stresses as function of

Stress tensor consist of two parts. One is linked to the

Viscous stresses  in Newtonian fluids are linearly

According to the flow velocity measurements in one fixed

The averaged value of fluctuating component through the

After a few steps of algebraic manipulation and not taking into

Reynolds equation and Navier-Stokes equation are similar.

On the left hand side of Reynolds equation appear new

After replacing those members on the right hand side of

On the right hand side in addition to the «real» averaged

Let’s analyze the situation of flow between two infinitely wide

The distribution of tangential stresses and velocities can be

From geometrical relation sin = - dz/ds follows:

Boundary conditions at contact surfaces between plates and

Maximum velocity is at coordinate (y = B/2) and has the value

The flow within the boundary layer is non-uniform and

Boundary layer covers the flow region between solid boundary

Flow within the boundary layer exhibits the properties of real –

One would note the development of boundary layer as

In the boundary layer the velocity is a function of vertical

The boundary layer thickness  increases along the plate,

From the condition of dimensional x

Tangential stress on the contact with the plate is derived from

In the vicinity of free flow tangential stress decreases rapidly

In turbulent region of BL the momentum exchange takes place

u 1  - Karman constant = 0,4

The value of constant C differs for the characteristic regions

For inner turbulent zone (strong viscosity influence):

It deals with mechanical energy balance, following the

Using the Bernoulli equation for an “ideal” fluid flow assumes

By adopting the idea of “inviscid” fluid, Navier-Stokes

Bernoulli function is constant for z direction, along the

PL (piezometric level) + v2/2g (kinetic energy level) = EL

We want to determine the stress distribution in pipe cross

The occurrence of p<patm does not affect the slope of EL and

The relationship between friction coefficient  and stresses at

The required pump power is given by:

Kaplan and pipe turbines 80-2

The power achieved with the turbine is expressed by equation:

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